Impact of Immersive Virtual Reality Exercise on Physiological and Psychological Outcomes in College Students: A Comparison with Traditional Cardiorespiratory Exercise Original Research
Main Article Content
Keywords
Physical activity, mood, motivation
Abstract
Introduction: Research suggests virtual reality (VR) exercise could be useful in promoting physical activity, particularly among college students who often engage with video games. The aim of this study was to compare physiological and psychological effects of immersive VR exercise to traditional cardiorespiratory exercise.
Methods: Twenty-four participants completed two separate 20-minute exercise sessions (immersive VR exercise and cardio equipment of choice) in a randomized and counter-balanced order. Average and maximum heart rate, perceived exertion, and psychological outcomes of enjoyment, intrinsic motivation, and mood were assessed.
Results: There was no significant difference in heart rate parameters or perceived exertion indicating similar exercise intensity between both sessions. However, the VR session resulted in significantly greater enjoyment (p<.001), improved mood (tension p=.011, depression p=.026, vigor p<.001, happiness p=.003), higher interest/enjoyment and perceived competence (p<.001 and p=.018, respectively), and less effort (p=.022) compared to traditional exercise.
Conclusions: VR exercise is a highly motivating and enjoyable alternative to traditional exercise and could be a valuable tool for improving physical activity and mental well-being in college-aged individuals. Future research should investigate different VR exercise modalities and long-term effects to optimize VR’s potential in sustaining physical activity.
References
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27. Ryan R, Deci E. Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI). 2006. Retrieved from: https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/intrinsic-motivation-inventory/
28. Intrinsic Motivation Inventory. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/intrinsic-motivation-inventory/
29. Terry PC, Lane AM, Fogarty GJ. Construct validity of the Profile of Mood States - Adolescents for use with adults. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2003;44:125-139. Doi: 10.1016/S1469-0292(01)00035-8
30. She H, Young J, Wittenberg O, Poole P, Mercer A, Shaw A, Wunsche B. HIITCopter: analysis of the suitability of VR exergaming for high-intensity interval training. Proceedings of the 32nd Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 2020. p. 293–302. Doi: 10.1145/3441000.3441009
31. Sousa CV, Hwang J, Cabrera-Perez R, Fernandez A, Misawa A, Newhook K, Lu AS. Active video games in fully immersive virtual reality elicit moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and improve cognitive performance in sedentary college students. JSHS. 2022;11(2):164–171. Doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2021.05.00 2
32. Qian J, McDonough DJ, Gao Z. The Effectiveness of Virtual Reality Exercise on Individual's Physiological, Psychological and Rehabilitative Outcomes: A Systematic Review. IJERPH. 2020;17(11). Doi: 10.3390/ijerph17114133
2. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2020. Public-use data file and documentation. 2021. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis/data-questionnaires-documentation.htm
3. Deliens T, Deforche B, De Bourdeaudhuij I, Clarys P. Determinants of physical activity and sedentary behaviour in university students: A qualitative study using focus group discussions. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:201. Doi: 10.1186/s12889-015-1553-4
4. American College Health Association. American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment III: Reference Group Executive Summary Spring 2023. American College Health Association. 2024.
5. Pew Research Center. Young men play video games, but so do a diverse group of other Americans. 2017. Retrieved from: www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/09/11/younger-men-play-video-games-but-so-do-a-diverse-group-of-other-americans
6. Reger G, Smolenski D, Norr A, Katz A, Buck B, Rothbaum BO. Does virtual reality increase emotional engagement during exposure for PTSD? Subjective distress during prolonged and virtual reality exposure therapy. J Anxiety Disord. 2019;61:75–81. Doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2018.06.001
7. Yang Y, Allen T, Abdullahi S, Pelphrey KA, Volkmar FR, Chapman SB. Neural mechanisms of behavioral change in young adults with high-functioning autism receiving virtual reality social cognition training: A pilot study. Autism Res. 2018;11:713–725. Doi: 10.1002/aur.1941
8. Weiss P, Keshner E, Levin M. Virtual Reality for Physical and Motor Rehabilitation. New York, NY: Springer; 2017.
9. Gomez D, Bagley J, Bolter N, Kern M, Lee CM. Metabolic cost and exercise intensity during active virtual reality gaming. Games Health J. 2018;7:310–316. Doi: 10.1089/g4h.2018.0012
10. Zeng N, Pope Z, Gao Z. Acute effect of virtual reality exercise bike games on college students' physiological and psychological outcomes. Cyberpsychol Behav Soc Netw. 2017; 20:453–457. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2017.0042
11. McDonough DJ, Pope ZC, Zeng N, Liu W, Gao Z. Comparison of College Students' Blood Pressure, Perceived Exertion, and Psychosocial Outcomes During Virtual Reality, Exergaming, and Traditional Exercise: An Exploratory Study. Games Health J. 2020;9(4):290–296. Doi: 10.1089/g4h.2019.0196
12. Deci EL, Ryan RM. The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol. Inq. 2000;11(4):227–268. Doi: 10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
13. Krijgsman C, Vansteenkiste M, van Tartwijk J, Maes J, Borghouts L, Cardon G, Mainhard T, Haerens L. Performance grading and motivational functioning and fear in physical education: A self-determination theory perspective. Learn. Individ. Differ. 2017;55:202–211. Doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2017.03.017
14. Vasconcellos D, Parker P, Hilland T, Cinelli R, Owen KB, Kapsal N, Lee J, Antczak D, Ntoumanis N, Ryan RM, Lonsdale C. Self-determination theory applied to physical education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Educ. Psychol. 2020; 112(7):1444-1469. Doi: 10.1037/edu0000420
15. Mocco A, Valmaggia L, Bernardi L, Alfieri M, Tarricone I. Enhancing Physical Activity with Immersive Virtual Reality: A Systematic Review. Cyberpsychol. Behav. Soc. Netw. 2024;27(5):303–317. Doi: 10.1089/cyber.2023.0394
16. Liu W, Zeng N, Pope ZC, McDonough DJ, Gao Z. Acute Effects of Immersive Virtual Reality Exercise on Young Adults' Situational Motivation. J. Clin. Med. 2019;8(11). Doi: 10.3390/jcm8111947
17. Robinson J, Razak MHBA. Comparing physiological and psychological effects of virtual reality vs. traditional high-intensity interval training in healthy individuals: results from a preliminary pilot randomised controlled trial. Bull Fac Phys Ther. 2025;30(7). Doi: 10.1186/s43161-025-00265-3
18. Zeng N, Liu W, Pope ZC, McDonough DJ, Gao Z. (2021). Acute Effects of Virtual Reality Exercise Biking on College Students’ Physical Responses. RQES. 93(3),633–639. Doi: 10.1080/02701367.2021.1891188
19. Franklin BA, Eijsvogels TMH, Pandey A, Quindry J, Toth PP. Physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and cardiovascular health: A clinical practice statement of the ASPC Part I: Bioenergetics, contemporary physical activity recommendations, benefits, risks, extreme exercise regimens, potential maladaptations. AJPC. 2022;12. Doi: 10.1016/j.ajpc.2022.100424
20. Godin G. The Godin-Shephard Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire. HFJC. 2024;4(1):18–22. Doi: 10.14288/hfjc.v4i1.82
21. Goto K, Nagasawa M, Yanagisawa O, Kizuka T, Ishii N, Takamatsu K. Muscular adaptations to combinations of high- and low-intensity resistance exercises. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2004;18:730–737. Doi: 10.1519/R-13603.1
22. Hernández-Vicente A, Hernando D, Marín-Puyalto J, Vicente-Rodríguez G, Garatachea N, Pueyo E, Bailón R. Validity of the Polar H7 Heart Rate Sensor for Heart Rate Variability Analysis during Exercise in Different Age, Body Composition and Fitness Level Groups. Sensors. 2021;21(3). Doi: 10.3390/s21030902
23. Borg G. Borg’s Perceived Exertion and Pain Scales. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1998; p. 104
24. Scott TJ, Black CR, Quinn J, Coutts AJ. Validity and reliability of the session-RPE method for quantifying training in Australian football: a comparison of the CR10 and CR100 scales. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2013;27:270–276. Doi: 10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182541d2e
25. Kendzierski D, DeCarlo KJ. Physical activity enjoyment scale: Two validation studies. JSEP. 1991;13(1):50–64. Doi: 10.1123/jsep.13.1.50
26. Moreno J-A, González-Cutre D, Martínez C, Alonso N, Lopez M. Psychometric properties of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES) in the Spanish context. Estud Psicol. 2008;29:173–180. Doi: 10.1174/021093908784485093
27. Ryan R, Deci E. Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI). 2006. Retrieved from: https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/intrinsic-motivation-inventory/
28. Intrinsic Motivation Inventory. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/intrinsic-motivation-inventory/
29. Terry PC, Lane AM, Fogarty GJ. Construct validity of the Profile of Mood States - Adolescents for use with adults. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2003;44:125-139. Doi: 10.1016/S1469-0292(01)00035-8
30. She H, Young J, Wittenberg O, Poole P, Mercer A, Shaw A, Wunsche B. HIITCopter: analysis of the suitability of VR exergaming for high-intensity interval training. Proceedings of the 32nd Australian Conference on Human-Computer Interaction. 2020. p. 293–302. Doi: 10.1145/3441000.3441009
31. Sousa CV, Hwang J, Cabrera-Perez R, Fernandez A, Misawa A, Newhook K, Lu AS. Active video games in fully immersive virtual reality elicit moderate-to-vigorous physical activity and improve cognitive performance in sedentary college students. JSHS. 2022;11(2):164–171. Doi: 10.1016/j.jshs.2021.05.00 2
32. Qian J, McDonough DJ, Gao Z. The Effectiveness of Virtual Reality Exercise on Individual's Physiological, Psychological and Rehabilitative Outcomes: A Systematic Review. IJERPH. 2020;17(11). Doi: 10.3390/ijerph17114133
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Jun 1, 2025
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Impact of Immersive Virtual Reality Exercise on Physiological and Psychological Outcomes in College Students: A Comparison with Traditional Cardiorespiratory Exercise: Original Research. (2025). Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.53520/jen2025.103201
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Copyright, 2025 by the authors. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Impact of Immersive Virtual Reality Exercise on Physiological and Psychological Outcomes in College Students: A Comparison with Traditional Cardiorespiratory Exercise: Original Research. (2025). Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.53520/jen2025.103201