Evaluating the Effects of a Proprietary Water Formulation on Hydration and Physiological Responses During Exercise-Heat Stress in Active Adults Original Research
Main Article Content
Keywords
Thermoregulation, cognition, rehydration
Abstract
Introduction: Hypohydration can impair physical and cognitive performance, particularly in hot and humid conditions or after intense activity. Hydration solutions aim to maintain euhydration and minimize electrolyte loss, yet the efficacy of a proprietary water (PW) formulation remains unclear. This study compared its effects on hydration status and performance to a carbohydrate-electrolyte drink (CE) and distilled water (DW), hypothesizing that CE would enhance hydration markers, perceptual responses, and cognitive and physiological outcomes.
Methods: Thirty-seven physically active males and females (25±7 years, 19 females) were randomized into PW (n=12), CE (n=13), or DW (n=12). Participants consumed 3.7 L (males) or 2.7 L (females) of their assigned fluid for five days before completing two 45-minute treadmill protocols simulating soccer play (28-33°C, 40-50% RH). Fluids lost were replenished at halftime. Cognitive assessments and subjective questionnaires were administered. A repeated measures linear mixed effects model analyzed group differences (α=0.05).
Results: Time significantly affected serum osmolality (p=0.009), lactate (p<0.001), vasopressin (p=0.003), and cortisol (p<0.001), but no significant group effects were found (p>0.05). The PW participants reported a higher RPE post-exercise than DW (p=0.041), with no other significant cognitive or perceptual differences.
Conclusion: None of the fluids significantly impacted hydration status or performance variables. Future research may examine longer exercise durations or more extreme conditions to reveal potential differences.
References
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10. Trangmar SJ, Chiesa ST, Llodio I, et al. Dehydration accelerates reductions in cerebral blood flow during prolonged exercise in the heat without compromising brain metabolism. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2015;309:H1598-H1607.
11. Ganio MS, Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, et al. Mild dehydration impairs cognitive performance and mood of men. Br J Nutr. 2011;106:1535-1543.
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13. Montain SJ, Sawka MN, Latzka WA, et al. Thermal and cardiovascular strain from hypohydration: Influence of exercise intensity. Int J Sports Med. 1998;19:87-91.
14. Rosales AM, Hailes WS, Dodds PS, et al. Influence of fluid delivery schedule and composition on fluid balance, physiologic strain, and substrate use in the heat. Wilderness Environ Med. 2021;32:27-35.
15. Harris PR, Keen DA, Constantopoulos E, et al. Fluid type influences acute hydration and muscle performance recovery in human subjects. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16:15.
16. Millard-Stafford M, Snow TK, Jones ML, et al. The beverage hydration index: Influence of electrolytes, carbohydrate, and protein. Nutrients. 2021;13.
17. Buccigrossi V, Lo Vecchio A, Bruzzese E, et al. Potency of oral rehydration solution in inducing fluid absorption is related to glucose concentration. Sci Rep. 2020;10:7803.
18. Blaine J, Chonchol M, Levi M. Renal control of calcium, phosphate, and magnesium homeostasis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;10:1257-1272.
19. Tai CY, Joy JM, Falcone PH, et al. An amino acid-electrolyte beverage may increase cellular rehydration relative to carbohydrate-electrolyte and flavored water beverages. Nutr J. 2014;13:47.
20. Jensen J, Rustad PI, Kolnes AJ, et al. The role of skeletal muscle glycogen breakdown for regulation of insulin sensitivity by exercise. Front Physiol. 2011;2:112.
21. Maughan RJ, Leiper JB. Limitations to fluid replacement during exercise. Can J Appl Physiol. 1999;24:173-187.
22. Maughan RJ. Exercise in the heat: Limitations to performance and the impact of fluid replacement strategies. Can J Appl Physiol. 1999;24:149-151.
23. Ganio MS, Klau JF, Lee EC, et al. Effect of various carbohydrate-electrolyte fluids on cycling performance and maximal voluntary contraction. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2010;20:104-114.
24. Caldwell AR, Rosa-Caldwell ME, Keeter C, et al. Effects of a 14-day hydration intervention on individuals with habitually low fluid intake. Ann Nutr Metab. 2020;76 Suppl 1:67-68.
25. Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. Am I drinking enough? Yes, no, and maybe. J Am Coll Nutr. 2016;35:185-192.
26. Drewnowski A, Rehm CD, Constant F. Water and beverage consumption among adults in the United States: Cross-sectional study using data from NHANES 2005-2010. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:1068.
27. Castellani JW, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, et al. Intravenous vs. Oral rehydration: Effects on subsequent exercise-heat stress. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1997;82:799-806.
28. Bello ML, Walker AJ, McFadden BA, et al. The effects of TeaCrine and caffeine on endurance and cognitive performance during a simulated match in high-level soccer players. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16:20.
29. McDermott BP, Anderson SA, Armstrong LE, et al. National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: Fluid replacement for the physically active. J Athl Train. 2017;52:877-895.
30. Mitchell JB, Grandjean PW, Pizza FX, et al. The effect of volume ingested on rehydration and gastric emptying following exercise-induced dehydration. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994;26:1135-1143.
31. Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:377-390.
32. Bongers C, Daanen HAM, Bogerd CP, et al. Validity, reliability, and inertia of four different temperature capsule systems. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2018;50:169-175.
33. Ganio MS, Brown CM, Casa DJ, et al. Validity and reliability of devices that assess body temperature during indoor exercise in the heat. J Athl Train. 2009;44:124-135.
34. Byrne C, Lim CL, Chew SAN, et al. Water versus carbohydrate-electrolyte fluid replacement during loaded marching under heat stress. Mil Med. 2005;170:715-721.
35. Casa DJ, Stearns RL, Lopez RM, et al. Influence of hydration on physiological function and performance during trail running in the heat. J Athl Train. 2010;45:147-156.
36. Johnson EC, Muñoz CX, Le Bellego L, et al. Markers of the hydration process during fluid volume modification in women with habitual high or low daily fluid intakes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2015;115:1067-1074.
37. Muñoz CX, McKenzie AL, Armstrong LE. Optimal hydration biomarkers: Consideration of daily activities. Obes Facts. 2014;7 Suppl 2:13-18.
38. Perrier E, Vergne S, Klein A, et al. Hydration biomarkers in free-living adults with different levels of habitual fluid consumption. Br J Nutr. 2013;109:1678-1687.
39. Muñoz CX, Johnson EC, Demartini JK, et al. Assessment of hydration biomarkers including salivary osmolality during passive and active dehydration. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2013;67:1257-1263.
40. Armstrong LE, Pumerantz AC, Fiala KA, et al. Human hydration indices: Acute and longitudinal reference values. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2010;20:145-153.
41. Jimenez C, Melin B, Koulmann N, et al. Plasma volume changes during and after acute variations of body hydration level in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1999;80:1-8.
42. Dill DB, Costill DL. Calculation of percentage changes in volumes of blood, plasma, and red cells in dehydration. J Appl Physiol. 1974;37:247-248.
43. Karakochuk CD, Hess SY, Moorthy D, et al. Measurement and interpretation of hemoglobin concentration in clinical and field settings: A narrative review. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2019;1450:126-146.
44. Hart S, Drevets K, Alford M, et al. A method-comparison study regarding the validity and reliability of the lactate plus analyzer. BMJ Open. 2013;3.
45. Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14:377-381.
46. Boyle GJ. A cross-validation of the factor structure of the profile of mood states: Were the factors correctly identified in the first instance? Psychol Rep. 1987;60:343-354.
47. Grove JR, Prapavessis H. Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of an abbreviated profile of mood states. Int J Sport Psychol. 1992;23:93-109.
48. Bourke TC, Lowrey CR, Dukelow SP, et al. A robot-based behavioural task to quantify impairments in rapid motor decisions and actions after stroke. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2016;13:91.
49. Corrigan JD, Hinkeldey NS. Relationships between parts A and B of the Trail Making Test. J Clin Psychol. 1987;43:402-409.
50. Sicard V, Moore RD, Ellemberg D. Long-term cognitive outcomes in male and female athletes following sport-related concussions. Int J Psychophysiol. 2018;132:3-8.
51. Fu G, Saunders G, Stevens J. Holm multiple correction for large-scale gene-shape association mapping. BMC Genet. 2014;15 Suppl 1:S5.
52. Chang CQ, Chen YB, Chen ZM, et al. Effects of a carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage on blood viscosity after dehydration in healthy adults. Chin Med J (Engl). 2010;123:3220-3225.
53. Wheelock CE, Lavoie EM, Stooks J, et al. Carbohydrate or electrolyte rehydration recovers plasma volume but not post-immersion performance compared to water after immersion diuresis. Mil Med. 2023.
54. Silvino VO, Batista MCC, Neto MM, et al. Effect of a cajuína hydroelectrolytic drink on the physical performance and hydration status of recreational runners. Curr Res Physiol. 2024;7:100119.
55. Sawka MN, Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. Hypohydration and human performance: Impact of environment and physiological mechanisms. Sports Med. 2015;45 Suppl 1:S51-60.
56. Hill EE, Zack E, Battaglini C, et al. Exercise and circulating cortisol levels: The intensity threshold effect. J Endocrinol Invest. 2008;31:587-591.
57. Hucklebridge FH, Clow A, Abeyguneratne T, et al. The awakening cortisol response and blood glucose levels. Life Sci. 1999;64:931-937.
58. Hoogervorst D, van der Burg N, Versteegen JJ, et al. Gastrointestinal complaints and correlations with self-reported macronutrient intake in independent groups of (ultra)marathon runners competing at different distances. Sports (Basel). 2019;7.
59. Martinez-Olcina M, Miralles-Amoros L, Asencio-Mas N, et al. Ingestion of carbohydrate solutions and mouth rinse on mood and perceptual responses during exercise in triathletes. Gels. 2022;8.
60. Welsh RS, Davis JM, Burke JR, et al. Carbohydrates and physical/mental performance during intermittent exercise to fatigue. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;34:723-731.
61. Baker LB, Rollo I, Stein KW, et al. Acute effects of carbohydrate supplementation on intermittent sports performance. Nutrients. 2015;7:5733-5763.
62. Yang J, Han Q, Liu Q, et al. Effects of carbohydrate drinks ingestion on executive function in athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychol. 2023;14:1183460.
2. Periard JD, Eijsvogels TMH, Daanen HAM. Exercise under heat stress: Thermoregulation, hydration, performance implications, and mitigation strategies. Physiol Rev. 2021;101:1873-1979.
3. Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. Dehydration: Physiology, assessment, and performance effects. Compr Physiol. 2014;4:257-285.
4. Adan A. Cognitive performance and dehydration. J Am Coll Nutr. 2012;31:71-78.
5. Riebl SK, Davy BM. The hydration equation: Update on water balance and cognitive performance. ACSM’s Health Fit J. 2013;17:21-28.
6. Armstrong LE. Rehydration during endurance exercise: Challenges, research, options, methods. Nutrients. 2021;13.
7. Adams WM, Ferraro EM, Huggins RA, et al. Influence of body mass loss on changes in heart rate during exercise in the heat: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28:2380-2389.
8. Coyle EF. Physiological determinants of endurance exercise performance. J Sci Med Sport. 1999;2:181-189.
9. Tan XR, Low ICC, Stephenson MC, et al. Neural basis of exertional fatigue in the heat: A review of magnetic resonance imaging methods. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2018;28:807-818.
10. Trangmar SJ, Chiesa ST, Llodio I, et al. Dehydration accelerates reductions in cerebral blood flow during prolonged exercise in the heat without compromising brain metabolism. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2015;309:H1598-H1607.
11. Ganio MS, Armstrong LE, Casa DJ, et al. Mild dehydration impairs cognitive performance and mood of men. Br J Nutr. 2011;106:1535-1543.
12. Zhang N, Du SM, Zhang JF, et al. Effects of dehydration and rehydration on cognitive performance and mood among male college students in Cangzhou, China: A self-controlled trial. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16.
13. Montain SJ, Sawka MN, Latzka WA, et al. Thermal and cardiovascular strain from hypohydration: Influence of exercise intensity. Int J Sports Med. 1998;19:87-91.
14. Rosales AM, Hailes WS, Dodds PS, et al. Influence of fluid delivery schedule and composition on fluid balance, physiologic strain, and substrate use in the heat. Wilderness Environ Med. 2021;32:27-35.
15. Harris PR, Keen DA, Constantopoulos E, et al. Fluid type influences acute hydration and muscle performance recovery in human subjects. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16:15.
16. Millard-Stafford M, Snow TK, Jones ML, et al. The beverage hydration index: Influence of electrolytes, carbohydrate, and protein. Nutrients. 2021;13.
17. Buccigrossi V, Lo Vecchio A, Bruzzese E, et al. Potency of oral rehydration solution in inducing fluid absorption is related to glucose concentration. Sci Rep. 2020;10:7803.
18. Blaine J, Chonchol M, Levi M. Renal control of calcium, phosphate, and magnesium homeostasis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2015;10:1257-1272.
19. Tai CY, Joy JM, Falcone PH, et al. An amino acid-electrolyte beverage may increase cellular rehydration relative to carbohydrate-electrolyte and flavored water beverages. Nutr J. 2014;13:47.
20. Jensen J, Rustad PI, Kolnes AJ, et al. The role of skeletal muscle glycogen breakdown for regulation of insulin sensitivity by exercise. Front Physiol. 2011;2:112.
21. Maughan RJ, Leiper JB. Limitations to fluid replacement during exercise. Can J Appl Physiol. 1999;24:173-187.
22. Maughan RJ. Exercise in the heat: Limitations to performance and the impact of fluid replacement strategies. Can J Appl Physiol. 1999;24:149-151.
23. Ganio MS, Klau JF, Lee EC, et al. Effect of various carbohydrate-electrolyte fluids on cycling performance and maximal voluntary contraction. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2010;20:104-114.
24. Caldwell AR, Rosa-Caldwell ME, Keeter C, et al. Effects of a 14-day hydration intervention on individuals with habitually low fluid intake. Ann Nutr Metab. 2020;76 Suppl 1:67-68.
25. Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. Am I drinking enough? Yes, no, and maybe. J Am Coll Nutr. 2016;35:185-192.
26. Drewnowski A, Rehm CD, Constant F. Water and beverage consumption among adults in the United States: Cross-sectional study using data from NHANES 2005-2010. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:1068.
27. Castellani JW, Maresh CM, Armstrong LE, et al. Intravenous vs. Oral rehydration: Effects on subsequent exercise-heat stress. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1997;82:799-806.
28. Bello ML, Walker AJ, McFadden BA, et al. The effects of TeaCrine and caffeine on endurance and cognitive performance during a simulated match in high-level soccer players. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2019;16:20.
29. McDermott BP, Anderson SA, Armstrong LE, et al. National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: Fluid replacement for the physically active. J Athl Train. 2017;52:877-895.
30. Mitchell JB, Grandjean PW, Pizza FX, et al. The effect of volume ingested on rehydration and gastric emptying following exercise-induced dehydration. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994;26:1135-1143.
31. Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39:377-390.
32. Bongers C, Daanen HAM, Bogerd CP, et al. Validity, reliability, and inertia of four different temperature capsule systems. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2018;50:169-175.
33. Ganio MS, Brown CM, Casa DJ, et al. Validity and reliability of devices that assess body temperature during indoor exercise in the heat. J Athl Train. 2009;44:124-135.
34. Byrne C, Lim CL, Chew SAN, et al. Water versus carbohydrate-electrolyte fluid replacement during loaded marching under heat stress. Mil Med. 2005;170:715-721.
35. Casa DJ, Stearns RL, Lopez RM, et al. Influence of hydration on physiological function and performance during trail running in the heat. J Athl Train. 2010;45:147-156.
36. Johnson EC, Muñoz CX, Le Bellego L, et al. Markers of the hydration process during fluid volume modification in women with habitual high or low daily fluid intakes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2015;115:1067-1074.
37. Muñoz CX, McKenzie AL, Armstrong LE. Optimal hydration biomarkers: Consideration of daily activities. Obes Facts. 2014;7 Suppl 2:13-18.
38. Perrier E, Vergne S, Klein A, et al. Hydration biomarkers in free-living adults with different levels of habitual fluid consumption. Br J Nutr. 2013;109:1678-1687.
39. Muñoz CX, Johnson EC, Demartini JK, et al. Assessment of hydration biomarkers including salivary osmolality during passive and active dehydration. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2013;67:1257-1263.
40. Armstrong LE, Pumerantz AC, Fiala KA, et al. Human hydration indices: Acute and longitudinal reference values. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2010;20:145-153.
41. Jimenez C, Melin B, Koulmann N, et al. Plasma volume changes during and after acute variations of body hydration level in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1999;80:1-8.
42. Dill DB, Costill DL. Calculation of percentage changes in volumes of blood, plasma, and red cells in dehydration. J Appl Physiol. 1974;37:247-248.
43. Karakochuk CD, Hess SY, Moorthy D, et al. Measurement and interpretation of hemoglobin concentration in clinical and field settings: A narrative review. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2019;1450:126-146.
44. Hart S, Drevets K, Alford M, et al. A method-comparison study regarding the validity and reliability of the lactate plus analyzer. BMJ Open. 2013;3.
45. Borg GA. Psychophysical bases of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1982;14:377-381.
46. Boyle GJ. A cross-validation of the factor structure of the profile of mood states: Were the factors correctly identified in the first instance? Psychol Rep. 1987;60:343-354.
47. Grove JR, Prapavessis H. Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of an abbreviated profile of mood states. Int J Sport Psychol. 1992;23:93-109.
48. Bourke TC, Lowrey CR, Dukelow SP, et al. A robot-based behavioural task to quantify impairments in rapid motor decisions and actions after stroke. J Neuroeng Rehabil. 2016;13:91.
49. Corrigan JD, Hinkeldey NS. Relationships between parts A and B of the Trail Making Test. J Clin Psychol. 1987;43:402-409.
50. Sicard V, Moore RD, Ellemberg D. Long-term cognitive outcomes in male and female athletes following sport-related concussions. Int J Psychophysiol. 2018;132:3-8.
51. Fu G, Saunders G, Stevens J. Holm multiple correction for large-scale gene-shape association mapping. BMC Genet. 2014;15 Suppl 1:S5.
52. Chang CQ, Chen YB, Chen ZM, et al. Effects of a carbohydrate-electrolyte beverage on blood viscosity after dehydration in healthy adults. Chin Med J (Engl). 2010;123:3220-3225.
53. Wheelock CE, Lavoie EM, Stooks J, et al. Carbohydrate or electrolyte rehydration recovers plasma volume but not post-immersion performance compared to water after immersion diuresis. Mil Med. 2023.
54. Silvino VO, Batista MCC, Neto MM, et al. Effect of a cajuína hydroelectrolytic drink on the physical performance and hydration status of recreational runners. Curr Res Physiol. 2024;7:100119.
55. Sawka MN, Cheuvront SN, Kenefick RW. Hypohydration and human performance: Impact of environment and physiological mechanisms. Sports Med. 2015;45 Suppl 1:S51-60.
56. Hill EE, Zack E, Battaglini C, et al. Exercise and circulating cortisol levels: The intensity threshold effect. J Endocrinol Invest. 2008;31:587-591.
57. Hucklebridge FH, Clow A, Abeyguneratne T, et al. The awakening cortisol response and blood glucose levels. Life Sci. 1999;64:931-937.
58. Hoogervorst D, van der Burg N, Versteegen JJ, et al. Gastrointestinal complaints and correlations with self-reported macronutrient intake in independent groups of (ultra)marathon runners competing at different distances. Sports (Basel). 2019;7.
59. Martinez-Olcina M, Miralles-Amoros L, Asencio-Mas N, et al. Ingestion of carbohydrate solutions and mouth rinse on mood and perceptual responses during exercise in triathletes. Gels. 2022;8.
60. Welsh RS, Davis JM, Burke JR, et al. Carbohydrates and physical/mental performance during intermittent exercise to fatigue. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;34:723-731.
61. Baker LB, Rollo I, Stein KW, et al. Acute effects of carbohydrate supplementation on intermittent sports performance. Nutrients. 2015;7:5733-5763.
62. Yang J, Han Q, Liu Q, et al. Effects of carbohydrate drinks ingestion on executive function in athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Psychol. 2023;14:1183460.
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Evaluating the Effects of a Proprietary Water Formulation on Hydration and Physiological Responses During Exercise-Heat Stress in Active Adults: Original Research. (2025). Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.53520/jen2025.103195
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Copyright, 2025 by the authors. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Evaluating the Effects of a Proprietary Water Formulation on Hydration and Physiological Responses During Exercise-Heat Stress in Active Adults: Original Research. (2025). Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.53520/jen2025.103195