The Journal of Exercise and Nutrition (JEN) is an open access, peer-reviewed journal that aims to enhance basic and applied research in multiple areas of exercise and nutrition from clinical to athletic populations. The journal provides researchers, practitioners, and students with a platform for novel and cutting-edge practices in the field. ISSN: 2640 - 2572.
Copyright, 2025 by the authors. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Substrate-Corrected VO₂ Models for Improved Interpretation of Movement Economy
Introduction: Movement economy is a core metric in endurance performance, yet conventional interpretation overlooks substrate-specific oxygen costs. Elevated oxygen consumption (VO₂) is often misclassified as reduced efficiency when it may instead reflect adaptive increases in fat oxidation. This report introduces and evaluates normalization approaches designed to yield more physiologically valid interpretations of oxygen consumption. Methods: This conceptual, simulation-based, and secondary data analysis developed two substrate-corrected VO₂ models: (1) the RER-Based Energy Equivalent (RER-EE) model, which adjusts VO₂ for varying caloric yields per liter of oxygen across RER values, and (2) the RER-Based Substrate Partitioning with Substrate Correction Ratio (RER-SP+SCR) model, which partitions VO₂ by substrate and corrects the fat-derived fraction for its lower ATP yield per O₂. Both were applied to previously published datasets from endurance athletes under diverse metabolic conditions. Results: Both models produced appreciably different normalized VO₂ values compared to traditional methods, particularly under high-fat oxidation conditions. The largest corrections occurred during prolonged submaximal efforts, such as 13KM and 25KM trials, reducing bias that would otherwise misclassify fat-adapted athletes as less economical. Conclusions: Substrate-corrected normalization provides a physiologically valid framework for interpreting oxygen consumption, enhancing research and applied assessments of endurance performance, training adaptation, and metabolic health.
Copyright (c) 2025 Bronson Dant, DHSc(c), CSCS, CCFT, Peter Cummings, MHP, Timothy Noakes, MBChB, MD, DSc, PhD(hc), Philip Prins, PhD. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Optimizing Nitric Oxide Production for Exercise Performance & Vascular Function: A Narrative Review on the Combination of Glutathione and Citrulline
Introduction: Citrulline has been thoroughly researched and well documented to increase plasma arginine levels, boosting nitric oxide (NO) synthesis via the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) pathway. While glutathione, a key antioxidant, protects NO from oxidative degradation and helps maintain vascular signaling integrity. When taken together, these nutrients may offer enhanced and/or sustained NO bioavailability, supporting vascular function, recovery, and exercise performance more effectively than citrulline alone. Methods: A literature review was conducted to explore the relationships between glutathione, citrulline, NO, and vascular health. Three databases, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar and eight search terms were used to find relevant articles. Results: Four double-blind placebo controlled human clinical trials found the combination of glutathione and l-citrulline to be more effective in enhancing and sustaining NO production levels and flow mediated dilation (vasodilation) better than citrulline alone (P<0.03). Conclusions: Collectively, these studies support the functional synergy between citrulline and glutathione in promoting NO-related health and performance outcomes offering a promising nutritional strategy for athletes, aging individuals, and those seeking cardiovascular support.
Copyright (c) 2025 Katie M. Emerson https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Effects of Sports Nutrition Counseling on Rating of Perceived Fatigue and Diet Patterns
Introduction: Collegiate cross-country runners have poor dietary intakes and are at increased risk for injury. Fatigue is one outcome used to predict risk of injury, and improvement in dietary intakes such as increased carbohydrate consumption may result in reduced fatigue. Other factors such as academic stress, sleep, and muscle mass also contribute to fatigue in athletes. Methods: Nutrient intake, perceived fatigue, sleep quality, and changes in body composition were assessed for nine cross-country athletes before and after receiving sports nutrition counseling. As this is a case series type design, these data, along with notes from nutrition counseling, were analyzed for trends with a focus on energy intake, carbohydrate intake, and factors that impact day-to-day fatigue. Results: Participants (n=9) had minimal changes in perceived fatigue, sleep quality, and body composition during the study. Most participants met estimated requirements for energy (106%) and protein (150%) but only consumed 70% of estimated carbohydrate needs. Participants made an effort to increase carbohydrate intake and reported reduced fatigue on long runs after increasing carbohydrates. Conclusions: Nutrition counseling from a registered dietitian can help to improve timing and quality of carbohydrates. Nutrition may improve peripheral fatigue experienced by athletes, but other factors impacting central fatigue should be assessed when reporting overall fatigue in athletes.
Copyright (c) 2025 Gabriella M. Matney, Dr. Carrie M. Hamady, Dr. Amy L. Morgan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Agreement Between Six Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis Devices and Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry
Introduction: Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) is a low-cost, accessible method to assess percent body fat (%BF). Rising recognition of the role of body composition in overall health and disease prevention has led to an increased usage of at-home BIA devices. The purpose of this study was to assess the level of agreement between six BIA devices and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Methods: Male (n=42) and female (n=35) participants completed body composition testing on six different BIA devices and a DXA scan Agreement was assessed using intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) with 95% confidence intervals, Spearman’s correlations, and Bland-Altman analyses to determine limits of agreement (LoA) for %BF. Results: Four BIA devices demonstrated moderate reliability (ICC: 0.66-0.73) and two devices demonstrated poor reliability (ICC: 0.25 and 0.43). The most favorable agreement profile from a BIA device was a mean bias of -2.21% and relatively narrow LoA (-9.88% - 5.46%). The least favorable agreement profile from a BIA device was a mean bias of 2.88% and LoA of –10.25% –16.01%. Conclusions: The present study indicated that multi-frequency BIA devices outperformed single-frequency BIA devices, and that the Omron had the highest LoA with DXA.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ann Frost Brown, Ariel Aguiar Bonfim Cruz, Alexa Chandler, C.J. Brush, Gena Irwin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Navigating ROTC and Corps of Cadets’ Nutrition Knowledge and Perspectives on Dietary Intake and Behavior
Introduction: Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) and Corps of Cadets face unique challenges that make them susceptible to poor nutritional habits. We evaluated cadets’ dietary beliefs, habits, barriers, and food choices, as well as general and sport nutrition knowledge. Methods: Cross-sectional data were analyzed from 184 members of the University’s ROTC and Corps of Cadets, using validated questionnaires, including the Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire for Athletes (NKQA), the Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ), the Rapid Eating Assessment for Participants, Shortened Version (REAP-S), and the Perceived Barriers to Healthy Eating. The categorical data were reported as frequencies (n) and percentages, and Chi-square (χ2) analyses were used to determine group independence (p < 0.05). Continuous data were checked for normality and then analyzed for differences between sexes and commission status using independent samples t-tests or Mann-Whitney U tests. Effects sizes were calculated using Cohen’s d and interpreted as follows: <0.2 trivial, <0.5 small, <0.8 moderate, <1.2 large, and >1.2 very large. Results: Participants exhibited poor overall nutrition knowledge (37.3±14.2%), with low scores for carbohydrates = 31.9±15.6%, protein = 52.6±20.7%, fat = 40.6±24.1%, vitamins = 35.3±23.2%, general nutrition = 29.1±14.6%, fluid = 28.8±20.4%, and sport nutrition = 36.2±17.5%. Further, the participants expressed being very willing (n=79, 42.9%) or willing (n=79, 42.9%) to change their dietary habits to healthier ones. However, a busy lifestyle (n = 164, 89.1%) and limited cooking facilities (n = 104, 56.5%) presented significant challenges to healthy eating. Conclusions: The participants reported having poor nutrition knowledge but valued healthier eating and expressed a willingness to improve their dietary habits to healthier ones. These findings suggest cadets may benefit from practical, registered dietitian nutritionist (RDN)-supported nutrition educational interventions that build culinary skills and address barriers like limited cooking facilities. Structured programs promoting sustainable eating habits could further enhance nutrition knowledge and dietary behaviors.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sheyla Leon, Adriana Gil, Ryan J. Sowinski, Lisa C. Colvin, Steven E. Martin, Stella L. Volpe, Drew E. Gonzalez https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Analysis of Dietary Micronutrient Intake of NCAA Track and Field Athletes
Introduction: Micronutrients are critical to optimal physiological function of the human body’s overall health and homeostasis. An athlete’s performance and recovery may be inhibited by micronutrient deficiencies1. This study analyzed the micronutrient consumption of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Collegiate Track and Field athletes. Methods: Thirty-seven track and field athletes, 15 females and 22 males participated. Multiple 24-hr recalls were collected, including weekdays and weekends, and analyzed using Nutrition Data System for Research (NDSR) to obtain dietary micronutrient intakes. Average intakes were compared to the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for each micronutrient. Pearson Chi Squared tests were used to assess correlations amongst the participant characteristics, gender, age, race, track event group, and residence. Results: Many participants under-consumed micronutrients, most commonly magnesium, calcium, and vitamin D. Significant correlations were found between gender and iron intake, race and magnesium intake, and residence and calcium intake. Results indicated a significant relationship between gender and dietary iron intake (p < 0.001), residence and calcium consumption (p < .05), and the race and magnesium intake (p < .05). Males were more likely to meet the iron RDA, and Caucasians had higher magnesium intake than African Americans. Those living on-campus were more likely to meet calcium requirements than off-campus. Conclusions: These findings highlight the need for dietary education and the importance of assessing micronutrient intake. While the impact of these nutrients on athletic performance justifies such efforts, their broader implications for overall health reinforce the necessity of thorough dietary analysis. Athletic programs should evaluate micronutrient intake alongside total caloric and macronutrient consumption.
Copyright (c) 2025 Haley Melton, Dr. Corbit Franks, Tyler Myers, Dr. Samantha Kostelnik, Dr. Hyun-Woo (David) Joung, Dr. Melinda W Valliant https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Evaluation of Coffea Arabica Seed Extract for Cognitive and Mood Impacts in Healthy Adults
Introduction: NeuroRush™ is a dietary ingredient comprised of the seed extract of the Coffea arabica. It is rich in polyphenols and chlorogenic acid (CGA). CGAs are linked to positive health impacts and are believed to support cognitive function. This study aimed to determine if a dietary supplement made of Coffee arabica seed extract would affect cognitive function and mood states in healthy adults. Methods: In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial, 19 healthy adults consumed either NeuroRush™ (150 mg coffee seed extract) or placebo (150 mg of maltodextrin). Participants completed cognitive tests (Go/No-Go, Stroop, and N-Back), subjective mood assessments, and safety monitoring at baseline and 1-, 2-, and 3 hours post-ingestion. Results: Significant main effects of time were observed for cognitive performance across tasks, including improvements in Stroop total score (p = 0.016), Stroop reaction time (p = 0.013), and N-Back correct responses (p = 0.010). The NeuroRush™ group exhibited enhanced N-Back accuracy (p = 0.008, d = 0.85) and a trend toward faster overall Go reaction times. Self-reported well-being was significantly greater in the NeuroRush™ group at 3 hours compared to placebo (p = 0.047, d = 0.64). Conclusions: Acute ingestion of NeuroRush™ may mildly enhance cognitive performance, particularly working memory and processing efficiency, and improve well-being in healthy adults. NeuroRush™ was well-tolerated and was safe within the confines of the study design. Longer-term research is warranted to determine if the enhanced cognitive impacts and mood states remain over time.
Copyright (c) 2025 Cassandra Evans, Doug Kalman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Impact of Immersive Virtual Reality Exercise on Physiological and Psychological Outcomes in College Students: A Comparison with Traditional Cardiorespiratory Exercise
Introduction: Research suggests virtual reality (VR) exercise could be useful in promoting physical activity, particularly among college students who often engage with video games. The aim of this study was to compare physiological and psychological effects of immersive VR exercise to traditional cardiorespiratory exercise. Methods: Twenty-four participants completed two separate 20-minute exercise sessions (immersive VR exercise and cardio equipment of choice) in a randomized and counter-balanced order. Average and maximum heart rate, perceived exertion, and psychological outcomes of enjoyment, intrinsic motivation, and mood were assessed. Results: There was no significant difference in heart rate parameters or perceived exertion indicating similar exercise intensity between both sessions. However, the VR session resulted in significantly greater enjoyment (p<.001), improved mood (tension p=.011, depression p=.026, vigor p<.001, happiness p=.003), higher interest/enjoyment and perceived competence (p<.001 and p=.018, respectively), and less effort (p=.022) compared to traditional exercise. Conclusions: VR exercise is a highly motivating and enjoyable alternative to traditional exercise and could be a valuable tool for improving physical activity and mental well-being in college-aged individuals. Future research should investigate different VR exercise modalities and long-term effects to optimize VR’s potential in sustaining physical activity.
Copyright (c) 2025 Renee Harrington https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Case Report: Compositional, Physiological, and Psychological Responses to Contest Preparation in a First-time Bikini Competitor
Introduction: The purpose of this report was to document a novice, natural, female, physique athlete’s physiological and psychological responses to a 6-month preparation and 1-month post-competition period. Methods: The athlete’s protocol throughout preparation was a high-protein caloric deficit with ~2 refeed days per week, as well as resistance and cardiovascular training. The athlete self-reported bodyweight and adherence via a weekly electronic survey. Once monthly during preparation, compositional, physiological, and psychological assessments were administered by a technician. Blood samples were drawn at the beginning of preparation and during the week of competition. Results: Bodyweight decreased throughout preparation (51.9 to 46.7kg; Δ5.2kg) and further post-competition (46.3kg, R2=0.96), with a similar decrease in body fat percentage (17.2 to 12.3%; Δ4.9%) and fat-free mass (42.9 to 41.0kg; Δ1.9kg) during preparation. Mild somatic (8/30) and depressive (5/27) symptoms manifested approximately 1-month prior to competition. Depressive (7/27) and anxiety (5/21) symptoms peaked post-competition but were not clinically significant. This aligned with a peak in emotional eating post-competition (5/12) and an increase in the athlete’s previously elevated cortisol levels (761.76 to 839.04nmol/L). Conclusions: The present report may be the first empirical documentation of a female physique competitor reducing fat-free mass during contest preparation and what is anecdotally known as “post-show blues.”
Copyright (c) 2025 Alexa Rukstela, Kworweinski Lafontant, Dr. Bill I. Campbell https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Acute Effects of Creatine and Branch Chain Amino Acids on Resting Energy Expenditure: Considerations for Testing
Introduction: The purpose of this study to was to elucidate the potential effects of acute creatine monohydrate (CM) and branched chain amino acid (BCAA) ingestion on resting energy expenditure (REE). Methods: Young physically active individuals (n=60) were randomly allocated to a single treatment: 1) Placebo (PL), 2) CM, or 3) BCAA. Participants completed a REE test via indirect calorimetry to establish baseline REE prior to ingesting their corresponding treatment. A post-REE was then conducted 60-mins after treatment consumption. Estimate daily caloric expenditure at rest was compared between treatments. Results: PL consumption did not result in changes of REE from pre- (1691 ± 360) to post-ingestion (1671 ± 319; p= 0.395; d= 0.06). However, acute ingestion of BCAA (p= 0.008; d= 0.12) resulted in significantly higher REE pre- (1678 ± 401) versus post- (1761 ± 357) . A non-significant trend towards decreases in REE were noted pre- (1663 ± 421) to post- (1590 ± 346) for CM (p=0.056; d=0.17). The magnitude of the effects for all conditions were small or trivial. These findings suggest that while the popular supplements CM and BCAAs alter REE acutely, the small changes may not be practically important to consider for REE testing. Conclusions: While the effects were small, individualized considerations for REE testing may still be necessary, but further testing using larger and more diverse sample sizes are needed.
Copyright (c) 2025 Lia Jiannine, Zachary H. Ervin , Christopher G. Ballmann https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Selection of Sex Does Not Affect Body Composition When Using the InBody770 Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis
Introduction: Many methods and equations for assessing body composition include sex as a variable. However, sex and gender identity do not always align. Thus, it would be beneficial to have easily performed methods of measuring body composition that did not rely on sex as a component of the assessment. For this purpose, the current study tested whether the InBody770 requires sex input to accurately measure body composition in males and females. Methods: Cisgender men and women were recruited to the study to have their body composition assessed in duplicate. Assessments were performed in a random order. ANOVAs were performed on the data reported from the InBody770 both within subjects and between groups. Results: There were no within subject differences for percent body fat (33.6 vs. 33.5 and 15.1 vs. 15.1%), estimated basal metabolic rate (1,438 vs. 1,440 and 1,842 vs. 1,842kcals/day), nor total body water (36.15 vs. 36.24 and 49.89 vs. 49.92 L) regardless of whether their sex was assigned as male or female. There were significant sex differences for percent body fat (33.5 vs. 15.1%), metabolic rate (1,438 vs. 1,842kcals), and total body water (36.15 vs. 49.92L regardless of how the individuals were identified (male or female). Conclusions: While average sex differences in percent body fat existed between males and females, the imputation of sex on the InBody770 did not influence the data produced.
Copyright (c) 2025 D.J. Oberlin, Adam Mohan, Yea Been Kim , Levi Vazquez , Jane Ekhtman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Exercise Behaviors and Nutrition Knowledge and Practices Among Trained Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Study
Introduction: Nutritional supplementation is a common strategy used by athletes at all levels of sport to enhance mental and physical performance and to improve recovery; however, it is difficult to generalize dietary supplement use as studies on the topic are heterogeneous. This cross-sectional study aims to collect current data on aspects related to exercise behaviors and nutrition knowledge and practices in trained athletes in the United States. Methods: Purposive sampling was utilized to recruit participants in the target population. A pilot-questionnaire was used to create the valid, reliable final questionnaire that was implemented. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize data. A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine relationships between selected variables. Results: Details on frequency, intensity, time, and type of exercise were summarized for the respondents. A majority responded as having basic or average nutrition knowledge. Nutrition knowledge and frequency of nutritional product use was also summarized. There was a significant relationship between selected variables with lower level and frequency of muscle soreness associated with higher frequency of engagement in recovery activities, higher level and frequency of muscle soreness associated with higher average intensity of both cardio- and strength-based exercise sessions, and a higher level of nutrition knowledge associated with a higher implementation of nutritional focus before, during, and after exercise. Conclusions: The results of the present study provide valuable information on aspects related to exercise behaviors and nutrition knowledge and practices in trained athletes. Future research should continue to investigate the use of supplements for athletic performance as well as investigate distinct nutrition knowledge compared to self-reported level of knowledge of nutrition.
Evaluating the Effects of a Proprietary Water Formulation on Hydration and Physiological Responses During Exercise-Heat Stress in Active Adults
Introduction: Hypohydration can impair physical and cognitive performance, particularly in hot and humid conditions or after intense activity. Hydration solutions aim to maintain euhydration and minimize electrolyte loss, yet the efficacy of a proprietary water (PW) formulation remains unclear. This study compared its effects on hydration status and performance to a carbohydrate-electrolyte drink (CE) and distilled water (DW), hypothesizing that CE would enhance hydration markers, perceptual responses, and cognitive and physiological outcomes. Methods: Thirty-seven physically active males and females (25±7 years, 19 females) were randomized into PW (n=12), CE (n=13), or DW (n=12). Participants consumed 3.7 L (males) or 2.7 L (females) of their assigned fluid for five days before completing two 45-minute treadmill protocols simulating soccer play (28-33°C, 40-50% RH). Fluids lost were replenished at halftime. Cognitive assessments and subjective questionnaires were administered. A repeated measures linear mixed effects model analyzed group differences (α=0.05). Results: Time significantly affected serum osmolality (p=0.009), lactate (p<0.001), vasopressin (p=0.003), and cortisol (p<0.001), but no significant group effects were found (p>0.05). The PW participants reported a higher RPE post-exercise than DW (p=0.041), with no other significant cognitive or perceptual differences. Conclusion: None of the fluids significantly impacted hydration status or performance variables. Future research may examine longer exercise durations or more extreme conditions to reveal potential differences.
Copyright (c) 2025 Blaine S. Lints, Jacob M. Eade, Gianna F. Mastrofini, Courtney M. Meyer, Sten Stay-Gundersen, Alexa J. Chandler, Bridget A. McFadden, Nathaniel D. Rhoades, R. Davis Moore, Shawn M. Arent, Susan W. Yeargin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Risk of Low Energy Availability, Disordered Eating, Eating Disorders, and Bone Stress Injuries in United States Female Track and Field
Introduction: Female track and field athletes have increased risk of low energy availability (LEA), disordered eating (DE), and eating disorders (ED), which are associated with health and performance consequences. This study explored LEA, DE, and ED risk among United States female track and field athletes and assessed differences in proportions between risk and competition level and bone stress injury (BSI) risk. Methods: Female track and field athletes (n = 392, aged 18-68 years) completed an online survey including the Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q), Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q), and Female Athlete Screening Tool (FAST), and self-reported BSIs. Chi-square tests of homogeneity assessed differences in proportions between competition level and BSI and LEA, DE, and ED risk. Results: 49%, 48%, and 22% of participants had high risk for LEA, DE, and ED, respectively; and concurrent risk of LEA, DE, and ED was 27%. There was a significant difference in proportions between competition level and LEA risk (X2 (3, 387) = 11.93, p = 0.008, Φ= 0.176) and ED/DE risk (X2 (3, 387) = 11.65, p = 0.007, Φ= 0.213); and BSI and LEA risk (X2 (2, 392) = 8.58, p = 0.014, Φ= 0.148). Conclusions: This study demonstrated a considerable portion of US female track and field athletes had high risk of LEA, DE, and ED.
Copyright (c) 2025 Melissa T. Lodge, Steve M. Cirella, Dr. Mark E. Hartman, Dr. Nicole E. Logan, Dr. Christie L. Ward-Ritacco https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Introduction: The omega-3 index (O3i), the amount of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) as a percentage of total fatty acids within erythrocytes, has emerged as a potentially important biomarker for sport. The purpose of this review is to quantify the O3i in athletes across various sporting contexts. Methods: Two databases (PubMed, Google Scholar) were searched for cross-sectional studies reporting the O3i in athletes. Simple pooled mean analyses were used to quantify the O3i in all studies and by subgroup (i.e., sex and sport). Results: Based on 18 studies (25 observations) comprised of 1,452 athletes, the combined O3i was 4.43 ± 0.59% and ranged between 2.98% and 5.19%. According to studies that reported the O3i proportion within their sample, less than 1% of all athletes had an O3i > 8%, whereas 32% of athletes had an O3i < 4%. The O3i mean difference between all subgroups (sex and sport activity) was within ± 1%. Conclusions: Athlete programs should make a concerted effort to: 1) routinely test the O3i, 2) provide education from nutrition professionals on the potential benefits and sources of n-3 fatty acids and, 3) provide meal options comprised of rich sources of EPA and DHA at least three times per week and consider providing supplementation as needed, if allowed by governing organizations.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jeffery L. Heileson, Tina E. Sergi, Leticia C. de Souza https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
An Evaluation of Sports Nutrition Knowledge and Influencing Factors in NCAA Division III Athletes
Introduction: This study evaluated the sports nutrition knowledge of NCAA Division III (DIII) athletes, examining the influence of demographic and sport-specific factors. Nutrition is a critical component of athletic performance, recovery, and overall health, yet prior research indicates collegiate athletes often lack adequate nutrition knowledge. Methods: A total of 412 athletes, representing 17 different sports across endurance, power, and skill categories, completed the validated Abridged Nutrition for Sport Knowledge Questionnaire (A-NSKQ). The sample included freshmen through fifth-year senior athletes, predominantly Caucasian (85%). Results: The average A-NSKQ score was 17.1 out of 35 (48.9%), indicating suboptimal knowledge. Significant differences were found across multiple variables including sex (p=0.0018), class rank (p=0.0023), sport played (p<0.0001), and previous nutrition education (p=0.0011). A multiple regression analysis identified sport played (54%), class rank (16%), sex (13%), and prior nutrition education (11%) as significant predictors of A-NSKQ scores (R2 = 0.26, p < 0.01). Conclusions: These results highlight the need for targeted, evidence-based nutrition education in DIII programs. Future research should explore how improved knowledge influences dietary practices, athletic performance, and effective delivery of nutritional education.
Copyright (c) 2025 Kerrie Berends, Michael J. Wierenga, Madeline Frens https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Nutritional Preparation for an Ultra-Endurance Swimmer: A Case Report
Introduction: Nutritional considerations and metabolic determinates for ultra-endurance events continue to evolve with the increasing popularity of events. This case study assessed the nutritional requirements required of 30-year-old male ultra-endurance athlete to successfully complete an endurance open-water swim. Methods: Dietary intake in preparation for the event was assessed, estimated caloric needs, and a nutritional analysis was performed on the athlete to determine nutritional intake that was required to successfully complete the endurance swim event. The athlete was monitored for 24.3 miles (Ontario, Canada to Northeast, Pennsylvania, United States). Day of nutritional changes were observed, and body composition was assessed pre- and post-event. Results: The swimmer was monitored for 11 hours, 28 minutes and 5 seconds. Determination of athletes’ potential metabolic energy would shape the energy cost to complete the endurance event. Modifications prior to the ultra-endurance swim event met the athlete’s energy requirement for training and the energy reserve needed for the endurance swim event. Conclusions: The addition of calories and nutritional modifications prior to the ultra-endurance swim event met the athlete’s energy requirement for training and the energy reserve needed for the endurance swim event. This case study highlights the importance of providing nutritional support for ultra-endurance athletes and the difficulty in predicting energy expenditure for such an event.
Copyright (c) 2025 Suzanne Kitts, Kory Stauffer, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Pharmacokinetic Comparison of Three Butyrate Products
Introduction: The aim of this study was to compare the pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters of lysine butyrate (LysB) to sodium (NaB) and tributyrin (TB). Methods: Ten men (29.1 ± 10.4yr) completed this randomized, three-arm, crossover clinical trial (#NCT06700785) over four visits (a screening and three testing visits). Serum butyrate and indices of affect (well-being, calm/relaxed, stressed/anxious, mood, motivation to perform tasks, alertness, and concentration) were measured prior to product ingestion, and 20-, 45-, 90-, 150-, and 210-min post-ingestion. Each butyrate product delivered a total amount of 786 mg of butyric acid. Results: There was a trend for an interaction (p=0.095) for serum butyrate concentrations, however there were no post hoc differences over time or between treatments. NaB (144±214µg/mL/min, p=0.042, d=0.75) and LysB (189±306µg/mL/min, p=0.023, d=0.86) had a significantly greater AUC0-210 than TB (108±190µg/mL/min). NaB (2.51±4.13µg/mL, p<0.001, d=1.66) and LysB (4.53±7.56µg/mL, p=0.007, d=1.11) had a significantly greater Cmax than TB (0.91±1.65µg/mL). NaB (22.5±7.91min, p=0.008, d=1.21) and LysB (20.0±0.0min, p=0.004, d=1.45) had a significantly lower Tmax than TB (51.5±21.7min). There was a main effect of time for well-being (p=0.005), calm and relaxed (p=0.013), mood (p=0.002), motivation to perform tasks (p=0.040), alertness (p=0.035), and a treatment trend for concentration (p=0.063) while there were no differences between treatments over time for stressed and anxious (p>0.10). Conclusions: This study is among the first to simultaneously evaluate three commercially available butyrate formulations in a controlled setting, which may help inform formulation-specific therapeutic strategies in the future. This PK study demonstrates that LysB and NaB exhibit greater bioavailability and more rapid systemic appearance compared to TB.
Copyright (c) 2025 Michael La Monica, Trevor Kirby, Shelley Hartshorn, Ashley Gustat, Jodi Grdic, Jennifer Sandrock https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Dietary Supplement Containing Essential Amino Acids in Combination with Resistance Training Improves Body Composition and Physical Performance Parameters in Generally Healthy Adults: A Pragmatic Single Arm Study
Introduction: Essential amino acid (EAA) supplements are popular for increasing muscle mass and improving performance. Methods: This pragmatic single arm study enrolled 30 participants (17F/13M) to consume a commercially available supplement providing 3.6 g/d EAA + arginine and complete supervised strength training (two, upper-body days, two, lower body days/week) over a 10-week period. DXA body composition, muscular strength (1 repetition max [1RM]) muscular endurance (number of repetitions to failure), and the Acute Recovery and Stress Scale (ARSS) were assessed at baseline and week 10. Results: Participants (n=27 completers [15F/12M]; mean ± SD age 38.7 ± 8.6 y and BMI 29.4 ± 3.6 kg/m2) experienced statistically significant (p<0.05) reductions in total fat mass (-0.9 [-1.8, -0.1] kg) and visceral fat (-96 [-165, -26] g), with concurrent increases in total lean body mass (1.1 [0.4, 1.8] kg), upper body strength (~18% increase in bench press 1-RM), lower body strength (~40% increase in angled leg-press 1-RM), and muscular endurance (~75% increased repetitions to failure for both exercises). Additionally, participants demonstrated improvements in all stress and recovery outcomes within the ARSS. Conclusions: These results demonstrate the potential value of EAA supplementation as part of a comprehensive approach to support physical performance and body composition in previously untrained or recreationally trained adults.
Copyright (c) 2025 Chad Cook, Rob Missman, Kristin Morris https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Effect of Differing Potentiation Modalities on Acute Performance in Collegiate Athletes
Introduction: The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of Reflexive Performance Resets (RPR) compared to a dynamic warm-up and contrast training on acute athletic performance. Methods: Participants were athletes competing in the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) collegiate athletes (male: 7, female: 2; average height: 180.64 ± 5.89 cm; average body mass: 76.29 ± 6.57 kg; age: 21.22 ± 1.71years; 1RM trap bar deadlift: 153.95 ± 28.35 kg; deadlift/body mass ratio: 2.02 ± 0.41). Participants in the study completed four different potentiation protocols: control (cycling), contrast training, dynamic warm-up, and RPR. The participants completed each protocol on separate days before performing a countermovement jump, which assessed mean peak displacement, acceleration, velocity, and power on a force plate, and a T-test assessed the change of direction performance. Results: A repeated measures ANOVA and independent t-tests were used to assess interactions and main effects between the protocols. A significant main effect was found when comparing the dynamic warm-up and RPR protocols in mean peak displacement (Dynamic: 0.42 ± 0.05 m; RPR: 0.36 ± 0.06 m; p = 0.001; d = 1.41; 95% Cl [-0.66,0.76), velocity (Dynamic: 2.85 ± .17 m/s; RPR: 2.7 ± .19 m/s; p =0.003; d = 1.41; 95% Cl [-0.03,0.33], and power (Dynamic: 4258 ± 541.4 w; RPR: 3964 ± 597.91 w; p = 0.005; d = 1.41; 95% Cl [-275.74,864.20]). There was also a significant main effect when comparing mean peak power between the dynamic warm-up and control protocols (Dynamic: 4258.24 ± 541.4 w; RPR: 4063.56 ± 474.41 w; p = 0.04; d = 0.38; 95% Cl [-314, 508.7]) There were no significant differences between the dynamic warm-up and RPR protocols in mean peak acceleration (Dynamic: 13.32 ± 2.4 m/s2; RPR: 13.12 ± 3.28 m/s2; p = .310 or mean peak T-test (Dynamic: 10.31 ± .78 s; RPR 10.1 ± .77 s; p = .464. Conclusions: A dynamic warm-up was shown to be most effective for improving acute countermovement jump performance when compared to RPR, contrast training, and a control protocol.
Copyright (c) 2025 Joshua Watson, Jason B Winchester, Jeffery McBride, Vanessa Cazás-Moreno https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Influence of Omega-3 Supplementation on Athletic Performance, Grip Strength, and Body Composition in NCAA Division I Collegiate Track & Field Athletes
Introduction: NCAA track and field (T&F) athletes hold one of the longest competitive seasons, making adequate nutrition and supplementation critical. Studies suggest that omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) supplementation may benefit athletic performance, strength, and body composition. This study examined the effects of n-3 PUFA supplementation on sport performance, hand grip strength, and body composition in NCAA Division I T&F athletes. Methods: Twenty-five NCAA Division I T&F athletes (14 females, 11 males) were recruited. In a single-blind randomized controlled trial, participants consumed either: 4.0 grams of fish oil (FO) or 4.0 grams of placebo (i.e., coconut oil) daily for eight weeks, starting at the beginning of their outdoor season competitions. Body composition, hand grip strength, sport performance, and omega-3 indexes were sampled prior to in-season competition and following the 8-week supplementation. Data were analyzed using a two-way repeated measures ANOVA (p < 0.05). Results: FO group saw a significant increase in omega-3 index (p = 0.004, but no significant differences in body composition, hand grip strength, or performance. Despite improvement in omega-3 index, all participants still possessed levels below current recommendations. Conclusions: No changes in body composition, hand grip strength, or sport performance were found, despite improvements in omega-3 status with supplementation.
Copyright (c) 2025 Katherine Lee, LesLee Funderburk, Tomas Chapman-Lopez, Ricardo Torres, Mary Pickler, Andrew Gallucci https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Current Patterns of Use and Acceptability of Consumer Wearable Activity Trackers in Emergency Department Patients
Introduction: Obesity and the metabolic syndrome are leading causes of increased healthcare utilization, preventable illness, and premature death. Future emergency department (ED) based strategies may include the use of consumer wearable activity trackers (WATs). Our objective was to characterize patterns of use and acceptability of WATs in ED patients and examine differences based on demographic and socioeconomic factors. Methods: This was a survey-based study addressing: 1) current or prior use of WATs, and 2) future interest in WAT use and willingness to share associated data with researchers. Any adult patient presenting to the ED was included, with enrollment at two large, urban academic medical centers. Results: A total of 169 participants were included, with 27% reporting current WAT use. WAT users were significantly younger (p<0.01) with higher rates of employment (p=0.01), income (p=0.03), and education (p=0.02) compared to non-WAT users. WAT users were less likely to report comorbidities including hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes mellitus (all p<0.01). Cost was the most prohibitive barrier among non-WAT users. Importantly, >90% were open to wearing WATs and sharing activity data with researchers. Conclusions: Results indicate that although current WAT use is limited, most ED patients express interest in future use and willingness to share activity data with researchers.
Copyright (c) 2024 Lauren K. Stewart, Charles P. Ryan, Brayan J. Marino, Jeffrey A. Kline https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Navigating Occupational Challenges: First Responders’ Perspectives on Dietary Intake and Behavior
Introduction: This study aimed to investigate first responders' dietary beliefs, habits, and food choices. Methods: Cross-sectional data were obtained from 21 first responders via validated questionnaires. Data were analyzed using SPSS version 29 software. Results: 21 first responders, including 13 law enforcement officers and eight firefighters, participated (age=37.8±10.0 years, height=180.8±6.5 cm, body mass=94.3±13.1 kg, and body mass index=28.9±4.5 kg/m2). Most participants reported being very willing (n=8, 39.1%) or willing (n=7, 33.3%) to change their eating habits. Barriers to healthy eating included busy lifestyles (n=19, 95%), irregular working hours (n=13, 65%), and willpower (n=10, 50%). Participants also placed importance on several food choice factors. Conclusions: First responders reported valuing healthy eating. However, unique barriers challenge them despite their willingness to improve their habits. These data may aid further investigation of healthy eating strategies in these populations.
Copyright (c) 2024 Dr. Drew E. Gonzalez, Adriana Gil, Dr. Ryan J. Sowinski, Dr. Kristen Mackenzie-Shalders, Dr. Steven E. Martin, Dr. Robin M. Orr https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Creatine Supplementation May Attenuate the Decrement in Exercise Performance during Low Carbohydrate Diets in Recreationally Trained Individuals
Introduction: Low carbohydrate (L-CHO) diets may be an effective means for weight loss; however, these L-CHO diets often result in decreases in exercise performance during high-intensity, interval exercise test (HIIET). Methods: Nineteen, healthy, recreationally active adults participated in this study. Subjects were assigned to one of three groups: control (CON), L-CHO diet w/ placebo (L-CHO), or L-CHO diet w/ creatine supplementation (L-CHO+Cr). Subjects performed HIIET to fatigue at 90% peak power output (PPO) with a 1:1 work-to-recovery ratio of 30 s. Dietary intervention consisted of <30% total intake of carbohydrates, while creatine supplementation consisted of a standard loading dose (20 g/day) or placebo (5 g/day). Results: There was no statistically significant difference in HIIET performance (# of intervals completed) in the L-CHO+Cr group (Pre-: 28.9 ± 18.6; Post-: 32.4 ± 18.3, p > 0.05). When expressed as a % change from pre-dietary intervention, L-CHO resulted in the greatest decrease in HIIET performance (L-CHO: -35 ± 14; CON: 12 ± 10; L-CHO+Cr: 31 ± 11 % change from pre-, p < 0.05). Conclusions: The addition of a standard loading dose of creatine during a L-CHO diet may help to attenuate the decrement in HIIET performance.
Copyright (c) 2024 Stephanie A. Born, Timothy R. Rotarius, Emily Van Wasshenova, Jakob D. Lauver, John R. Thistlethwaite, Barry W. Scheuermann https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Nutrition, Body Composition, and Performance: A Case Study of Two Collegiate Wrestlers
Introduction: This case-study examined changes in nutrient intake, body composition, and performance of two Division I wrestlers before and after competition season. Methods: Two male wrestlers were assessed during pre-season (PRE) and after the national championship tournament (POST). Body composition was determined via 7-site skinfolds to estimate body fat percent (BF%) and fat-free mass (FFM). Nutrient intake was analyzed from 3-day food recalls. A Biodex dynamometer assessed isometric strength. A stationary cycle ergometer was used to assess anaerobic time to exhaustion (TTE). Results: Both wrestlers’ body mass and BF% increased at POST, while Participant 2’s FFM decreased 0.9kg. Participant 2 met 44% and 67% of energy recommendations PRE and POST, respectively. Carbohydrate intake was approximately at 33% and 57% recommendations PRE and POST, while protein intake was at 75% of estimated needs. Participant 1 maintained performance from PRE to POST, while Participant 2 experienced a -15.0 and -5.0 Nm·kg-1 decrease in extension and flexion strength, respectively. Conclusions: For these two athletes, under consuming energy and macronutrients seems to have a negative effect on muscle mass and strength performance, with less impact on anaerobic performance. These findings may provide insight for monitoring nutrition throughout the wrestling season to prevent decreases in strength and FFM.
Copyright (c) 2024 Marni Shoemaker, Gregory-James Coapstick, Dr. Allison Barry https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A Comparative Study of Mental Health, Body Composition, and Physical Activity in American vs Romanian College Students After COVID-19 Lockdown
Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic and its lockdown restrictions forced college students to spend less time on campuses and more time indoors at home, increasing their sedentary behaviors. We aimed to better understand trends among assumed decreased physical activity levels, increased mental health symptoms, and increased poor nutritional habits. The results will serve healthcare clinicians in developing targeted interventions for improving overall health in college students. Methods: American college students (n = 90) and Romanian college students (n = 85) were assessed for current self-reported levels of physical activity, mental health symptoms, and body composition values in the post-COVID-19 lockdown era. Results: All participants (N =185; 100 females) reported being highly active (82.3%) and experiencing a current level of heightened depressive and anxious symptomatology (58.2%). Differences were seen between the measured body fat percentages (BF) and skeletal muscle masses (SKMM) of the American (BF: males 26.66 12.24%, females 32.88 10.13%) and Romanian (BF: males 11.76 6.68%, females 18.07 9.30%) college students. Despite these differences, all participants collectively displayed a positive relationship between depressive and anxious symptomatology and BF (R = 0.23; p = 0.0018) and a negative relationship between depressive and anxious symptomatology and SKMM (R = - 0.15; p = 0.04). Conclusions: Although cultural differences may help to explain the found differences among body fat percentages and skeletal muscle masses, both groups of college students did similarly struggle with symptoms of depression and anxiety. The post-lockdown coping mechanisms embraced by both groups of college students have not been fully effective in improving their mental health.
Copyright (c) 2024 Dr. Manuela Caciula, Dr. Luis Torres, Dr. Simion Tomoioaga https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Attenuation of Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness with Acute Consumption of Essential Amino Acids
Introduction: Prior studies of the acute benefits of protein supplementation have determined a benefit in improving post-exercise muscle anabolism and aiding the recovery of muscle function and performance. Previous acute protein supplement studies in post-exercise protein synthesis and anabolic intracellular signaling reported no attenuation in muscle damage or elevated muscle function. The aim of this study is to implement a specific content of essential amino acids with resistance and aerobic exercises to quantify the difference in strength, endurance, and flexibility during the delayed onset muscle soreness common with a new exercise protocol. Methods: We enrolled 42 participants (22 EAA and 20 Controls) completed an hour-long aerobic and resistance exercise protocol including flexibility, resistance, and aerobic exercises for three consecutive days. The study participants were randomly assigned to the EAA (6.6g) per day (EAA + Gatorade) group or the control (Gatorade) group. The data was analyzed in a double-blinded format. Results: Both groups improved the initial flexibility respectively throughout the three exercise days but were not significantly different (p=0.32) in the sit and reach. For the resistance/power activities, the EAA group improved in the repetitions for push-ups (p=0.014 vs 0.21) and dips (0.0002 vs 0.59) compared to the controls. The EAA group was faster although not statistically significant in the 20-meter sprint and improved in the 1.5-mile run during the third day (P=0.002 vs 0.48) compared to the control group. Conclusions: The data in the results supports that acute ingestion of the essential amino acid supplements provides increased physical performance and decreases the DOMS symptoms in sedentary participants over the three-day trial period of exercise.
Copyright (c) 2024 Klaudia Szych, Ariel Gomez, MS, Dr. Matthew A. Barlow https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Carnivore Diet and Athletic Performance: A Case Study Analysis
Introduction: The carnivore diet, also known as the all-meat diet, has gained popularity in recent years among athletes and fitness enthusiasts. In this case study, we examined the potential impact of the carnivore diet on athletic performance and recovery. Methods: We observed and obtained data on an 18-year-old female NCAA Division II athlete who had begun the diet one month prior to the start of the soccer season. A total of 22 game sessions over 13 weeks were observed and recorded, collecting TRIMP, average game heart rate, and GPS data (miles, work rate, top speed). Due to the findings of the data, halfway into the season a registered dietitian (RD) intervened to suggest the addition of ~16g carbohydrates pre-game and ~6-10g carbohydrates post-game. Results: Before the intervention, the athlete measured an average of 240.82 TRIMP compared to the team’s average of 205.20 with the same GPS distance load as her counterparts (p=0.03). After the RD intervention, of consuming ~16g of fruit closer to game time, the athlete’s number of effect and intensity score changed to be comparable to the rest of the team 208.60 vs. 228.81, increasing the p-value out of significance (p=0.37). Conclusions: While several factors contribute to high performance, data show that the addition of carbohydrate consumption close to game time in this particular athlete increased performance indicators (TRIMP and GPS Work Rate) for the student athlete.
Copyright (c) 2024 Victor Romano, Susan Bowser, Emy Cloutier https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
Reliability of the HUMAC360 to Measure Movement Velocity during Three Equal Segments of the Barbell Back Squat
Introduction: Linear position transducers (LPT) are commonly used to assess movement velocity during full concentric movements, but fail to account for fluctuations in velocity throughout the movement. This investigation aimed to determine inter-set and inter-day reliability of the HUMAC360 LPT during three equal segments of the barbell back squat. Methods: Seventeen participants with resistance exercise experience completed an informed consent and a one-repetition maximum (1RM) on their initial visit, with two additional visits consisting of two sets of three repetitions at 30-, 50-, 60- and 70% of 1RM with ≥ 48H between visits. The LPT was attached to the medial aspect of the barbell sleeve to assess velocity. Repetitions were segmented into thirds based on distance as the top, middle and bottom portion of the movement. Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC), standard error of the measurement and paired samples t-tests were used to assess mean velocity (MV), peak velocity (PV) and duration reliability. Results: When using the average of the three repetitions, good-to-excellent (ICC2,1=0.708-0.993) inter-set and inter-day MV and PV ICCs were noted across all intensities and segments. The top and middle portion exhibited stronger reliability measures compared to the bottom. Movement velocity was not significantly different (p>0.05) at any exercise intensity, with the exception of MV at 60% during the top portion of the movement (p=0.045). Conclusions: The HUMAC360 provides reliable measures of mean velocity and peak velocity during each segment of the barbel back squat.
Copyright (c) 2024 Edward Z. Pelka, Jennifer Rivera, Ryan W. Gant, Anthony G. Pinzone, Emily C. Tagesen, Modesto A. Lebron, Adam R. Jajtner https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
The Effects of a Multi-Ingredient Dietary Supplement on Recovery from Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness
Introduction: The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of multi-ingredient dietary supplement on indices of muscle recovery on delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Methods: In a randomized, placebo-controlled trial, healthy exercise-trained subjects (n=24) consumed the treatment (i.e., Caraflame®: Retinyl Palmitate (Vit. A) 3.3 mg, Sodium Butyrate 175 mg, and Beta-Caryophyllene 30 mg or placebo (i.e., Maltodextrin 1000mg) daily over a 14-day period. Subjects completed the DOMS protocol and were assessed for changes in pain (visual analog scale (VAS) and a pressure algometer), strength (1-RM), and inflammatory markers (Interleukin-1b, Interleukin-6 and C-reactive protein). A dependent samples t-test was used to determine differences between groups with regard to the delta score. A p-value of P<0.05 was used to determine significance. Results: All subjects were physically active, healthy adults (Mean±SD – Age 23.5±7, Height 170±12.7 cm, Body Mass 71.0±19.57 kg, % body fat 24.3±10.6). A statistically significant difference was found for the assessment of pain threshold via VAS. Subjects in the treatment group exhibited a higher pain threshold two days post-DOMS (i.e., delta score data). No significant differences between groups for arm circumference, 1-RM, pain assessed by algometer, or arm circumference between the groups. Furthermore, there were no significant differences between groups for inflammatory markers (CRP, IL-6, and IL-1b). Conclusions: Based on this preliminary investigation, two weeks of a multi-ingredient dietary supplement may decrease the subjective perception of delayed-onset muscle soreness in exercise-trained adults.
Copyright (c) 2024 Cassandra Evans, Jason Curtis, Flavia Pereira, Jose Rojas, Maria Berrocales, Kristiina Kinnunen, Antonio Crisanti, Kendall Andries, Leilani Batista, Juan Carlos Santana, Lia Jiannine, Jaime Tartar, Jose Antonio https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0