Achieving Optimal Protein Synthesis and Muscle Function: Less Processing May Be Beneficial
Main Article Content
Keywords
Sarcopenia, Native whey protein, leucine
Abstract
It is well recognized that adequate protein intake, especially the amino acid leucine, stimulates muscle protein synthesis and therefore supports muscle growth and function. It has been suggested that the protein intake required to reach maximal protein synthesis has been suggested to be between 20-40g of high-quality protein per meal. Therefore, a protein source high in quality leucine may provide an enhanced benefit over other protein sources. This may be particularly beneficial for exercise recovery, injury recovery or age-related muscle loss prevention. Aging leads to higher protein needs, due to anabolic resistance in protein synthesis. Therefore, high quality leucine rich proteins are beneficial. One option is the native whey protein. Native whey protein is produced by low temperature, cold filtration of fresh milk which leaves proteins intact and results in a higher leucine content than other proteins such as whey protein concentrate. Typical whey protein is derived as a by-product of cheese production or from heat treated cow’s milk. It is the purpose of this review to discuss the benefits of high-quality protein on muscle protein synthesis and compare the effects of native whey protein to standard whey and other proteins on protein synthesis and muscle function after exercise and in elderly individuals.
References
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3. Tipton KD. Nutritional Support for Exercise-Induced Injuries. Sports medicine (Auckland, NZ). 2015;45 Suppl 1:S93-104.
4. Katsanos CS, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR. A high proportion of leucine is required for optimal stimulation of the rate of muscle protein synthesis by essential amino acids in the elderly. American journal of physiology Endocrinology and metabolism. 2006;291(2):E381-387.
5. Janssen I, Ross R. Linking age-related changes in skeletal muscle mass and composition with metabolism and disease. The journal of nutrition, health & aging. 2005;9(6):408-419.
6. Volpi E, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Mittendorfer B, Wolfe RR. Essential amino acids are primarily responsible for the amino acid stimulation of muscle protein anabolism in healthy elderly adults. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2003;78(2):250-258.
7. Wilkinson DJ, Hossain T, Hill DS, et al. Effects of leucine and its metabolite beta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyrate on human skeletal muscle protein metabolism. The Journal of physiology. 2013;591(11):2911-2923.
8. Dillon EL. Nutritionally essential amino acids and metabolic signaling in aging. Amino acids. 2013;45(3):431-441.
9. Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Zhang XJ, et al. Amino acid ingestion improves muscle protein synthesis in the young and elderly.
American journal ofphysiology Endocrinology and metabolism. 2004;286(3):E321-328.
10. Katsanos CS, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR. Aging is associated with diminished accretion of muscle proteins after the ingestion of a small bolus of essential amino acids. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2005;82(5):1065-1073.
11. Witard OC, Wardle SL, Macnaughton LS, Hodgson AB, Tipton KD. Protein Considerations for Optimising Skeletal Muscle Mass in Healthy Young and Older Adults. Nutrients. 2016;8(4):181.
12. Tang JE, Moore DR, Kujbida GW, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men. Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md : 1985).
2009;107(3):987-992.
13. Pennings B, Boirie Y, Senden JM, Gijsen AP, Kuipers H, van Loon LJ. Whey protein stimulates postprandial muscle protein accretion more effectively than do casein and casein hydrolysate in older men. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2011;93(5):997-1005.
14. Burd NA, Yang Y, Moore DR, Tang JE, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Greater stimulation of myofibrillar protein synthesis with ingestion of whey protein isolate v. micellar casein at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men. The British journal of nutrition. 2012;108(6):958-962.
15. Walrand S, Gryson C, Salles J, et al. Fast-digestive protein supplement for ten days overcomes muscle anabolic resistance in healthy elderly men. Clinical nutrition. 2016;35(3):660-668.
16. Borad SG, Kumar A, Singh AK. Effect of processing on nutritive values of milk protein. Critical
reviews in food science and nutrition. 2017;57(17):3690-3702.
17. Hamarsland H, Aas SN, Nordengen AL, et al. Native Whey Induces Similar Post Exercise
Muscle Anabolic Responses as Regular Whey, Despite Greater Leucinemia, in Elderly
Individuals. The journal of nutrition, health & aging. 2019;23(1):42-50.
18. Hamarsland H LJ, Paulsen G, Cotter M, Borsheim E, Raastad T. Native whey induces higher
and faster leucinemia than other whey protein supplements and milk: a randomized controlled trial. . Native whey induces higher and faster leucinemia than other whey protein supplements and milk: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Nutrition. 2017;3(10).
19. McGregor RA, Poppitt SD. Milk protein for improved metabolic health: a review of the evidence. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2013;10(1):46.
20. Liu Z, Barrett EJ. Human protein metabolism: its measurement and regulation. American journal of physiology Endocrinology and metabolism. 2002;283(6):E1105-1112.
21. Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Bahat G, Bauer J, et al. Sarcopenia: revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age and ageing. 2019;48(4):601.
22. Paddon-Jones D, Short KR, Campbell WW, Volpi E, Wolfe RR. Role of dietary protein in the sarcopenia of aging. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2008;87(5):1562s-1566s.
23. Siparsky PN, Kirkendall DT, Garrett WE, Jr. Muscle changes in aging: understanding sarcopenia. Sports health. 2014;6(1):36-40.
24. Tipton KD, Hamilton DL, Gallagher IJ. Assessing the Role of Muscle Protein Breakdown in Response to Nutrition and Exercise in Humans. Sports medicine (Auckland, NZ). 2018;48(Suppl 1):53-64.
25. Fatouros IG, Jamurtas AZ. Insights into the molecular etiology of exercise-induced inflammation: opportunities for optimizing performance. Journal of inflammation research. 2016;9:175-186.
26. Gryson C, Ratel S, Rance M, et al. Four-month course of soluble milk proteins interacts with exercise to improve muscle strength and delay fatigue in elderly participants. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association. 2014;15(12):958.e951-959.
27. Landi F, Calvani R, Tosato M, et al. Protein Intake and Muscle Health in Old Age: From Biological Plausibility to Clinical Evidence. Nutrients. 2016;8(5).
28. Ferguson-Stegall L, McCleave EL, Ding Z, et al. Postexercise carbohydrate-protein supplementation improves subsequent exercise performance and intracellular signaling for protein synthesis. Journal of strength and conditioning research. 2011;25(5):1210-1224.
29. Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR, et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta- regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. British journal of sports medicine. 2018;52(6):376-384.
30. Moore DR, Churchward-Venne TA, Witard O, et al. Protein ingestion to stimulate myofibrillar protein synthesis requires greater relative protein intakes in healthy older versus younger men. The journals of gerontology Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences.
2015;70(1):57-62.
31. Jager R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2017;14:20.
32. Rooyackers OE, Adey DB, Ades PA, Nair KS. Effect of age on in vivo rates of mitochondrial protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle. Proceedings ofthe National Academy ofSciences ofthe United States of America. 1996;93(26):15364-15369.
33. Welle S, Thornton C, Jozefowicz R, Statt M. Myofibrillar protein synthesis in young and old men. The American journal of physiology. 1993;264(5 Pt 1):E693-698.
34. Trappe T, Williams R, Carrithers J, et al. Influence of age and resistance exercise on human skeletal muscle proteolysis: a microdialysis approach. The Journal of physiology. 2004;554(Pt 3):803- 813.
35. Hughes VA, Frontera WR, Wood M, et al. Longitudinal muscle strength changes in older adults: influence of muscle mass, physical activity, and health. The journals of gerontology Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences. 2001;56(5):B209-217.
36. Kobayashi H, Borsheim E, Anthony TG, et al. Reduced amino acid availability inhibits muscle protein synthesis and decreases activity of initiation factor eIF2B. American journal of physiology Endocrinology and metabolism. 2003;284(3):E488-498.
37. Guillet C, Prod'homme M, Balage M, et al. Impaired anabolic response of muscle protein synthesis is associated with S6K1 dysregulation in elderly humans. FASEB journal : official publication ofthe Federation ofAmerican Societies for Experimental Biology. 2004;18(13):1586-1587.
38. Volpi E, Mittendorfer B, Rasmussen BB, Wolfe RR. The response of muscle protein anabolism to combined hyperaminoacidemia and glucose-induced hyperinsulinemia is impaired in the elderly. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2000;85(12):4481-4490.
39. Fujita S, Rasmussen BB, Cadenas JG, et al. Aerobic exercise overcomes the age-related insulin resistance of muscle protein metabolism by improving endothelial function and Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling. Diabetes. 2007;56(6):1615-1622.
40. Dreyer HC, Drummond MJ, Pennings B, et al. Leucine-enriched essential amino acid and carbohydrate ingestion following resistance exercise
enhances mTOR signaling and protein synthesis in human muscle. American journal of physiology Endocrinology and metabolism.
2008;294(2):E392-400.
41. Volpi E, Campbell WW, Dwyer JT, et al. Is the optimal level of protein intake for older adults greater than the recommended dietary allowance? The journals of gerontology Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences. 2013;68(6):677-681.
42. Wolfe RR, Miller SL. The recommended dietary allowance of protein: a misunderstood concept. Jama. 2008;299(24):2891-2893.
43. Wolfe RR, Miller SL, Miller KB. Optimal protein intake in the elderly. Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland). 2008;27(5):675-684.
44. Wolfe RR. The role of dietary protein in optimizing muscle mass, function and health outcomes in older individuals. The British journal of nutrition. 2012;108 Suppl 2:S88-93.
45. Trumbo P, Schlicker S, Yates AA, Poos M. Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohdrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2002;102(11):1621.
46. Mamerow MM, Mettler JA, English KL, et al. Dietary protein distribution positively influences 24-h muscle protein synthesis in healthy adults. The Journal of nutrition. 2014;144(6):876-880.
47. Paddon-Jones D, Rasmussen BB. Dietary protein recommendations and the prevention of sarcopenia. Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care. 2009;12(1):86-90.
48. Organization WH. Protein Quality Evaluation: Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, Bethesda, Md., USA, 4-8 December 1989. Vol 51: Food & Agriculture Org.; 1991.
49. Millward DJ, Layman DK, Tome D, Schaafsma G. Protein quality assessment: impact of expanding understanding of protein and amino acid needs for optimal health. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2008;87(5):1576s-1581s.
50. Wolfe RR. Update on protein intake: importance of milk proteins for health status of the elderly. Nutrition reviews. 2015;73 Suppl 1:41-47.
51. Food, . AOotUN. Dietary Protein Quality Evaluation in Human Nutrition: Report of an FAO Expert Consultation, 31 March-2 April, 2011, Auckland, New Zealand. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2013.
52. Moore DR, Soeters PB. The Biological Value of Protein. Nestle Nutrition Institute workshop series. 2015;82:39-51.
53. Wu G. Dietary protein intake and human health. Food & function. 2016;7(3):1251-1265.
54. Casperson SL, Sheffield-Moore M, Hewlings SJ, Paddon-Jones D. Leucine supplementation chronically improves muscle protein synthesis in older adults consuming the RDA for protein.Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland). 2012;31(4):512-519.
55. Churchward-Venne TA, Breen L, Di Donato DM, et al. Leucine supplementation of a low-protein mixed macronutrient beverage enhances myofibrillar protein synthesis in young men: a double-blind, randomized trial. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2014;99(2):276-286.
56. Schnebelen-Berthier C, Baudry C, Clerc E, Jaruga A, Le Ruyet P, Lecerf J-M. Effect of supplementing meals with soluble milk proteins on plasma leucine levels in healthy older people:A randomized pilot study. Nutrition and Aging. 2015;3(2-4):139-146.
57. Boirie Y, Dangin M, Gachon P, Vasson MP, Maubois JL, Beaufrere B. Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1997;94(26):14930-14935.
58. Norton LE, Layman DK, Bunpo P, Anthony TG, Brana DV, Garlick PJ. The leucine content of a complete meal directs peak activation but not duration of skeletal muscle protein synthesis and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling in rats. The Journal of nutrition. 2009;139(6):1103- 1109.
59. Norton LE, Wilson GJ, Layman DK, Moulton CJ, Garlick PJ. Leucine content of dietary proteins is a determinant of postprandial skeletal muscle protein synthesis in adult rats. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2012;9(1):67.
60. Devries MC, Phillips SM. Supplemental protein in support of muscle mass and health: advantage whey. Journal offood science. 2015;80 Suppl 1:A8-a15.
61. Savino P. Knowledge of Constituent Ingredients in Enteral Nutrition Formulas Can Make a Difference in Patient Response to Enteral Feeding. Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 2018;33(1):90-98.
62. Garcia-Vicencio S, Ratel S, Gryson C, et al. A Moderate Supplementation of Native Whey Protein Promotes Better Muscle Training and Recovery Adaptations Than Standard Whey Protein - A 12-Week Electrical Stimulation and Plyometrics Training Study. Frontiers in physiology. 2018;9:1312.
63. M. Fabre BM, C. Leduc, E. Tiollier, M. Clauss, A. Marchand, J. Robineau, T. Serenari, J. Piscione, J. Brasy, M. Guerville, X. Bigard . ffets d’une supplémentation en glucides et en protéines solubles du lait sur les performances physiques et les marqueurs de dommages musculaires au cours d’une simulation d’un tournoi de rugby à 7. Francophones de Nutrition. 2019 Rennes.
2. Lam FC, Khan TM, Faidah H, Haseeb A, Khan AH. Effectiveness of whey protein supplements on the serum levels of amino acid, creatinine kinase and myoglobin of athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic reviews. 2019;8(1):130.
3. Tipton KD. Nutritional Support for Exercise-Induced Injuries. Sports medicine (Auckland, NZ). 2015;45 Suppl 1:S93-104.
4. Katsanos CS, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR. A high proportion of leucine is required for optimal stimulation of the rate of muscle protein synthesis by essential amino acids in the elderly. American journal of physiology Endocrinology and metabolism. 2006;291(2):E381-387.
5. Janssen I, Ross R. Linking age-related changes in skeletal muscle mass and composition with metabolism and disease. The journal of nutrition, health & aging. 2005;9(6):408-419.
6. Volpi E, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Mittendorfer B, Wolfe RR. Essential amino acids are primarily responsible for the amino acid stimulation of muscle protein anabolism in healthy elderly adults. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2003;78(2):250-258.
7. Wilkinson DJ, Hossain T, Hill DS, et al. Effects of leucine and its metabolite beta-hydroxy-beta- methylbutyrate on human skeletal muscle protein metabolism. The Journal of physiology. 2013;591(11):2911-2923.
8. Dillon EL. Nutritionally essential amino acids and metabolic signaling in aging. Amino acids. 2013;45(3):431-441.
9. Paddon-Jones D, Sheffield-Moore M, Zhang XJ, et al. Amino acid ingestion improves muscle protein synthesis in the young and elderly.
American journal ofphysiology Endocrinology and metabolism. 2004;286(3):E321-328.
10. Katsanos CS, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR. Aging is associated with diminished accretion of muscle proteins after the ingestion of a small bolus of essential amino acids. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2005;82(5):1065-1073.
11. Witard OC, Wardle SL, Macnaughton LS, Hodgson AB, Tipton KD. Protein Considerations for Optimising Skeletal Muscle Mass in Healthy Young and Older Adults. Nutrients. 2016;8(4):181.
12. Tang JE, Moore DR, Kujbida GW, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men. Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md : 1985).
2009;107(3):987-992.
13. Pennings B, Boirie Y, Senden JM, Gijsen AP, Kuipers H, van Loon LJ. Whey protein stimulates postprandial muscle protein accretion more effectively than do casein and casein hydrolysate in older men. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2011;93(5):997-1005.
14. Burd NA, Yang Y, Moore DR, Tang JE, Tarnopolsky MA, Phillips SM. Greater stimulation of myofibrillar protein synthesis with ingestion of whey protein isolate v. micellar casein at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men. The British journal of nutrition. 2012;108(6):958-962.
15. Walrand S, Gryson C, Salles J, et al. Fast-digestive protein supplement for ten days overcomes muscle anabolic resistance in healthy elderly men. Clinical nutrition. 2016;35(3):660-668.
16. Borad SG, Kumar A, Singh AK. Effect of processing on nutritive values of milk protein. Critical
reviews in food science and nutrition. 2017;57(17):3690-3702.
17. Hamarsland H, Aas SN, Nordengen AL, et al. Native Whey Induces Similar Post Exercise
Muscle Anabolic Responses as Regular Whey, Despite Greater Leucinemia, in Elderly
Individuals. The journal of nutrition, health & aging. 2019;23(1):42-50.
18. Hamarsland H LJ, Paulsen G, Cotter M, Borsheim E, Raastad T. Native whey induces higher
and faster leucinemia than other whey protein supplements and milk: a randomized controlled trial. . Native whey induces higher and faster leucinemia than other whey protein supplements and milk: a randomized controlled trial. BMC Nutrition. 2017;3(10).
19. McGregor RA, Poppitt SD. Milk protein for improved metabolic health: a review of the evidence. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2013;10(1):46.
20. Liu Z, Barrett EJ. Human protein metabolism: its measurement and regulation. American journal of physiology Endocrinology and metabolism. 2002;283(6):E1105-1112.
21. Cruz-Jentoft AJ, Bahat G, Bauer J, et al. Sarcopenia: revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis. Age and ageing. 2019;48(4):601.
22. Paddon-Jones D, Short KR, Campbell WW, Volpi E, Wolfe RR. Role of dietary protein in the sarcopenia of aging. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2008;87(5):1562s-1566s.
23. Siparsky PN, Kirkendall DT, Garrett WE, Jr. Muscle changes in aging: understanding sarcopenia. Sports health. 2014;6(1):36-40.
24. Tipton KD, Hamilton DL, Gallagher IJ. Assessing the Role of Muscle Protein Breakdown in Response to Nutrition and Exercise in Humans. Sports medicine (Auckland, NZ). 2018;48(Suppl 1):53-64.
25. Fatouros IG, Jamurtas AZ. Insights into the molecular etiology of exercise-induced inflammation: opportunities for optimizing performance. Journal of inflammation research. 2016;9:175-186.
26. Gryson C, Ratel S, Rance M, et al. Four-month course of soluble milk proteins interacts with exercise to improve muscle strength and delay fatigue in elderly participants. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association. 2014;15(12):958.e951-959.
27. Landi F, Calvani R, Tosato M, et al. Protein Intake and Muscle Health in Old Age: From Biological Plausibility to Clinical Evidence. Nutrients. 2016;8(5).
28. Ferguson-Stegall L, McCleave EL, Ding Z, et al. Postexercise carbohydrate-protein supplementation improves subsequent exercise performance and intracellular signaling for protein synthesis. Journal of strength and conditioning research. 2011;25(5):1210-1224.
29. Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR, et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta- regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. British journal of sports medicine. 2018;52(6):376-384.
30. Moore DR, Churchward-Venne TA, Witard O, et al. Protein ingestion to stimulate myofibrillar protein synthesis requires greater relative protein intakes in healthy older versus younger men. The journals of gerontology Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences.
2015;70(1):57-62.
31. Jager R, Kerksick CM, Campbell BI, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 2017;14:20.
32. Rooyackers OE, Adey DB, Ades PA, Nair KS. Effect of age on in vivo rates of mitochondrial protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle. Proceedings ofthe National Academy ofSciences ofthe United States of America. 1996;93(26):15364-15369.
33. Welle S, Thornton C, Jozefowicz R, Statt M. Myofibrillar protein synthesis in young and old men. The American journal of physiology. 1993;264(5 Pt 1):E693-698.
34. Trappe T, Williams R, Carrithers J, et al. Influence of age and resistance exercise on human skeletal muscle proteolysis: a microdialysis approach. The Journal of physiology. 2004;554(Pt 3):803- 813.
35. Hughes VA, Frontera WR, Wood M, et al. Longitudinal muscle strength changes in older adults: influence of muscle mass, physical activity, and health. The journals of gerontology Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences. 2001;56(5):B209-217.
36. Kobayashi H, Borsheim E, Anthony TG, et al. Reduced amino acid availability inhibits muscle protein synthesis and decreases activity of initiation factor eIF2B. American journal of physiology Endocrinology and metabolism. 2003;284(3):E488-498.
37. Guillet C, Prod'homme M, Balage M, et al. Impaired anabolic response of muscle protein synthesis is associated with S6K1 dysregulation in elderly humans. FASEB journal : official publication ofthe Federation ofAmerican Societies for Experimental Biology. 2004;18(13):1586-1587.
38. Volpi E, Mittendorfer B, Rasmussen BB, Wolfe RR. The response of muscle protein anabolism to combined hyperaminoacidemia and glucose-induced hyperinsulinemia is impaired in the elderly. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism. 2000;85(12):4481-4490.
39. Fujita S, Rasmussen BB, Cadenas JG, et al. Aerobic exercise overcomes the age-related insulin resistance of muscle protein metabolism by improving endothelial function and Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin signaling. Diabetes. 2007;56(6):1615-1622.
40. Dreyer HC, Drummond MJ, Pennings B, et al. Leucine-enriched essential amino acid and carbohydrate ingestion following resistance exercise
enhances mTOR signaling and protein synthesis in human muscle. American journal of physiology Endocrinology and metabolism.
2008;294(2):E392-400.
41. Volpi E, Campbell WW, Dwyer JT, et al. Is the optimal level of protein intake for older adults greater than the recommended dietary allowance? The journals of gerontology Series A, Biological sciences and medical sciences. 2013;68(6):677-681.
42. Wolfe RR, Miller SL. The recommended dietary allowance of protein: a misunderstood concept. Jama. 2008;299(24):2891-2893.
43. Wolfe RR, Miller SL, Miller KB. Optimal protein intake in the elderly. Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland). 2008;27(5):675-684.
44. Wolfe RR. The role of dietary protein in optimizing muscle mass, function and health outcomes in older individuals. The British journal of nutrition. 2012;108 Suppl 2:S88-93.
45. Trumbo P, Schlicker S, Yates AA, Poos M. Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohdrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 2002;102(11):1621.
46. Mamerow MM, Mettler JA, English KL, et al. Dietary protein distribution positively influences 24-h muscle protein synthesis in healthy adults. The Journal of nutrition. 2014;144(6):876-880.
47. Paddon-Jones D, Rasmussen BB. Dietary protein recommendations and the prevention of sarcopenia. Current opinion in clinical nutrition and metabolic care. 2009;12(1):86-90.
48. Organization WH. Protein Quality Evaluation: Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation, Bethesda, Md., USA, 4-8 December 1989. Vol 51: Food & Agriculture Org.; 1991.
49. Millward DJ, Layman DK, Tome D, Schaafsma G. Protein quality assessment: impact of expanding understanding of protein and amino acid needs for optimal health. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2008;87(5):1576s-1581s.
50. Wolfe RR. Update on protein intake: importance of milk proteins for health status of the elderly. Nutrition reviews. 2015;73 Suppl 1:41-47.
51. Food, . AOotUN. Dietary Protein Quality Evaluation in Human Nutrition: Report of an FAO Expert Consultation, 31 March-2 April, 2011, Auckland, New Zealand. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2013.
52. Moore DR, Soeters PB. The Biological Value of Protein. Nestle Nutrition Institute workshop series. 2015;82:39-51.
53. Wu G. Dietary protein intake and human health. Food & function. 2016;7(3):1251-1265.
54. Casperson SL, Sheffield-Moore M, Hewlings SJ, Paddon-Jones D. Leucine supplementation chronically improves muscle protein synthesis in older adults consuming the RDA for protein.Clinical nutrition (Edinburgh, Scotland). 2012;31(4):512-519.
55. Churchward-Venne TA, Breen L, Di Donato DM, et al. Leucine supplementation of a low-protein mixed macronutrient beverage enhances myofibrillar protein synthesis in young men: a double-blind, randomized trial. The American journal of clinical nutrition. 2014;99(2):276-286.
56. Schnebelen-Berthier C, Baudry C, Clerc E, Jaruga A, Le Ruyet P, Lecerf J-M. Effect of supplementing meals with soluble milk proteins on plasma leucine levels in healthy older people:A randomized pilot study. Nutrition and Aging. 2015;3(2-4):139-146.
57. Boirie Y, Dangin M, Gachon P, Vasson MP, Maubois JL, Beaufrere B. Slow and fast dietary proteins differently modulate postprandial protein accretion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 1997;94(26):14930-14935.
58. Norton LE, Layman DK, Bunpo P, Anthony TG, Brana DV, Garlick PJ. The leucine content of a complete meal directs peak activation but not duration of skeletal muscle protein synthesis and mammalian target of rapamycin signaling in rats. The Journal of nutrition. 2009;139(6):1103- 1109.
59. Norton LE, Wilson GJ, Layman DK, Moulton CJ, Garlick PJ. Leucine content of dietary proteins is a determinant of postprandial skeletal muscle protein synthesis in adult rats. Nutr Metab (Lond). 2012;9(1):67.
60. Devries MC, Phillips SM. Supplemental protein in support of muscle mass and health: advantage whey. Journal offood science. 2015;80 Suppl 1:A8-a15.
61. Savino P. Knowledge of Constituent Ingredients in Enteral Nutrition Formulas Can Make a Difference in Patient Response to Enteral Feeding. Nutrition in clinical practice : official publication of the American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 2018;33(1):90-98.
62. Garcia-Vicencio S, Ratel S, Gryson C, et al. A Moderate Supplementation of Native Whey Protein Promotes Better Muscle Training and Recovery Adaptations Than Standard Whey Protein - A 12-Week Electrical Stimulation and Plyometrics Training Study. Frontiers in physiology. 2018;9:1312.
63. M. Fabre BM, C. Leduc, E. Tiollier, M. Clauss, A. Marchand, J. Robineau, T. Serenari, J. Piscione, J. Brasy, M. Guerville, X. Bigard . ffets d’une supplémentation en glucides et en protéines solubles du lait sur les performances physiques et les marqueurs de dommages musculaires au cours d’une simulation d’un tournoi de rugby à 7. Francophones de Nutrition. 2019 Rennes.
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Achieving Optimal Protein Synthesis and Muscle Function: Less Processing May Be Beneficial . (2020). Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 3(1). https://journalofexerciseandnutrition.com/index.php/JEN/article/view/59