Creatine Supplementation: Practical Strategies and Considerations for Mixed Martial Arts
Main Article Content
Keywords
Brain Health, Supplement, Performance, Creatine Monohydrate, Combat
Abstract
Mixed martial arts (MMA) is an intermittent sport that is physically and cognitively demanding. Nutritional strategies to support training, competition, and weight- cutting are important to optimize performance. One purported ergogenic aid that may have beneficial effects for MMA is creatine monohydrate. The purpose of this narrative review is to (1) discuss how creatine supplementation impacts MMA performance; (2) outline the effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and highlight specific strategies while cutting weight; (3) discuss how creatine can be used after weigh-ins to enhance re-hydration and glycogen re-synthesis; (4) evaluate the potential cognitive benefits of creatine supplementation; and (5) discuss practical real life strategies and considerations when considering creatine supplementation.
References
1. Kim S, Greenwell TC, Andrew D, Lee J, Mahony D. An analysis of spectator motives in an individual combat sport: A study of mixed martial arts fans. Sport Marketing Quarterly. 2008;17:109-119.
2. Buse GJ. No holds barred sport fighting: A 10 year review of mixed martial arts competition. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40(2):169-172. doi: 40/2/169 [pii].
3. del Vecchio FB, Hirata SM, Franchini E. A review of time-motion analysis and combat development in mixed martial arts matches at regional level tournaments. Percept Mot Skills. 2011;112(2):639-648. doi: 10.2466/05.25.PMS.112.2.639-648 [doi].
4. Wilmore J, Costill D. Physiology ofsport and exercise. 3rd ed. Champaing, IL, USA: Human Kinetics; 2004:1. 5. Spanias C, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Anthropometric and physiological profile of mixed martial art athletes: A brief review. Sports (Basel).
2019;7(6):10.3390/sports7060146. doi: E146 [pii].
6. James LP, Robertson S, Haff GG, Beckman EM, Kelly VG. Identifying the performance characteristics of a winning outcome in elite mixed martial arts competition. J Sci Med Sport. 2017;20(3):296-301. doi: S1440-2440(16)30143-8 [pii].
7. Faro HK, de Souza Fortes L, Gomes da Silva Machado, D. Dynamics of cognitive performance at rest and after exhaustive exercise in top-three world-ranked mixed martial arts athletes: A series of case studies. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2019. doi: 10.23736/S0022-4707.19.10207-1 [doi].
8. Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics, dietitians of canada, and the american college of sports medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2016;116(3):501-528. doi: S2212-2672(15)01802-X [pii].
9. Reale R, Slater G, Burke LM. Individualised dietary strategies for olympic combat sports: Acute weight loss, recovery and competition nutrition. Eur J Sport Sci. 2017;17(6):727-740. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2017.1297489 [doi].
10. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: Safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14:18-z. eCollection 2017. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z [doi].
11. Wyss M, Kaddurah-Daouk R. Creatine and creatinine metabolism. Physiol Rev. 2000;80(3):1107-1213. doi: 10.1152/physrev.2000.80.3.1107 [doi].
12. Candow DG, Forbes SC, Chilibeck PD, Cornish SM, Antonio J, Kreider RB. Effectiveness of creatine supplementation on aging muscle and bone: Focus on falls prevention and inflammation. J Clin Med. 2019;8(4):10.3390/jcm8040488. doi: E488 [pii].
13. Candow DG, Forbes SC, Chilibeck PD, Cornish SM, Antonio J, Kreider RB. Variables influencing the effectiveness of creatine supplementation as a therapeutic intervention for sarcopenia. Front Nutr. 2019;6:124. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00124 [doi].
14. Forbes SC, Candow DG. Timing of creatine supplementation and resistance training: A brief review. Journal of Exercise and Nutrition. 2018;1(5):1.
15. Dolan E, Gualano B, Rawson ES. Beyond muscle: The effects of creatine supplementation on brain creatine, cognitive processing, and traumatic brain injury. Eur J Sport Sci. 2018:1-14. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1500644 [doi].
16. Syrotuik DG, Bell GJ. Acute creatine monohydrate supplementation: A descriptive physiological profile of responders vs. nonresponders. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(3):610-617. doi: 10.1519/12392.1 [doi].
17. Safdar A, Yardley NJ, Snow R, Melov S, Tarnopolsky MA. Global and targeted gene expression and protein content in skeletal muscle of young men following short-term creatine monohydrate supplementation. Physiol Genomics. 2008;32(2):219-228. doi: 00157.2007 [pii].
18. Burke DG, Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, et al. Effect of creatine supplementation and resistance- exercise training on muscle insulin-like growth factor in young adults. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2008;18(4):389-398.
19. Candow DG, Forbes SC, Chilibeck PD, Cornish SM, Antonio J, Kreider RB. Effectiveness of creatine supplementation on aging muscle and bone: Focus on falls prevention and inflammation. J Clin Med. 2019;8(4):10.3390/jcm8040488. doi: E488 [pii].
20. Chilibeck PD, Kaviani M, Candow DG, Zello GA. Effect of creatine supplementation during resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscular strength in older adults: A meta-analysis. Open Access J Sports Med. 2017;8:213-226. doi: 10.2147/OAJSM.S123529 [doi].
21. Branch JD. Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: A meta- analysis. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2003;13(2):198-226. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.13.2.198 [doi].
22. Roberts PA, Fox J, Peirce N, Jones SW, Casey A, Greenhaff PL. Creatine ingestion augments dietary carbohydrate mediated muscle glycogen supercompensation during the initial 24 h of recovery following prolonged exhaustive exercise in humans. Amino Acids. 2016;48(8):1831-1842. doi: 10.1007/s00726-016- 2252-x [doi].
23. Graef JL, Smith AE, Kendall KL, et al. The effects of four weeks of creatine supplementation and high-intensity interval training on cardiorespiratory fitness: A randomized controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009;6:18-18. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-6-18 [doi].
24. Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, Forbes SC. Creatine supplementation and aging musculoskeletal health. Endocrine. 2014;45(3):354-361. doi: 10.1007/s12020-013-0070-4 [doi].
25. Devries MC, Phillips SM. Creatine supplementation during resistance training in older adults-a meta- analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014;46(6):1194-1203. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000220 [doi].
26. Lanhers C, Pereira B, Naughton G, Trousselard M, Lesage FX, Dutheil F. Creatine supplementation and upper limb strength performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2017;47(1):163- 173. doi: 10.1007/s40279-016-0571-4 [doi].
27. Lanhers C, Pereira B, Naughton G, Trousselard M, Lesage FX, Dutheil F. Creatine supplementation and lower limb strength performance: A systematic review and meta-analyses. Sports Med. 2015;45(9):1285-1294. doi: 10.1007/s40279-015-0337-4 [doi].
28. A cross-sectional performance analysis and projection of the UFC athlete. 1st ed. ; 2018:1-45.
29. Manjarrez-Montes de Oca R, Farfan-Gonzalez F, Camarillo-Romero S, et al. Effects of creatine supplementation in taekwondo practitioners. Nutr Hosp. 2013;28(2):391-399. doi: 10.3305/nh.2013.28.2.6314 [doi].
30. Aedma M, Timpmann S, Latt E, Oopik V. Short-term creatine supplementation has no impact on upper-body anaerobic power in trained wrestlers. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015;12:45-6. eCollection 2015. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0107-6 [doi].
31. Kocak S, Karli U. Effects of high dose oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003;43(4):488-492.
32. Phillips SM. A brief review of critical processes in exercise-induced muscular hypertrophy. Sports Med. 2014;44 Suppl 1:71. doi: 10.1007/s40279-014-0152-3 [doi].
33. Candow DG, Chilibeck PD. Differences in size, strength, and power of upper and lower body muscle groups in young and older men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60(2):148-156. doi: 60/2/148 [pii].
34. Forbes S, Candow D, Krentz J, Roberts M, Young K. Body fat changes following creatine supplementation and resistance training in adults > 50 years of age: A meta-analysis. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology. 2019;4(3):62. 10.3390/jfmk4030062.
35. Kazak L, Chouchani ET, Jedrychowski MP, et al. A creatine-driven substrate cycle enhances energy expenditure and thermogenesis in beige fat. Cell. 2015;163(3):643-655. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.09.035 [doi].
36. Kazak L, Rahbani JF, Samborska B, et al. Ablation of adipocyte creatine transport impairs thermogenesis and causes diet-induced obesity. Nat Metab. 2019;1(3):360-370. doi: 10.1038/s42255-019- 0035-x [doi].
37. Earnest CP, Almada AL, Mitchell TL. High-performance capillary electrophoresis-pure creatine monohydrate reduces blood lipids in men and women. Clin Sci (Lond). 1996;91(1):113-118.
38. Harris RC, Soderlund K, Hultman E. Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clin Sci (Lond). 1992;83(3):367-374.
39. Hultman E, Soderlund K, Timmons JA, Cederblad G, Greenhaff PL. Muscle creatine loading in men. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1996;81(1):232-237. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.1.232 [doi].
40. Candow DG, Forbes SC, Chilibeck PD, Cornish SM, Antonio J, Kreider RB. Variables influencing the effectiveness of creatine supplementation as a therapeutic intervention for sarcopenia. Front Nutr. 2019;6:124. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00124 [doi].
41. Kim HJ, Kim CK, Carpentier A, Poortmans JR. Studies on the safety of creatine supplementation. Amino Acids. 2011;40(5):1409-1418. doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-0878-2 [doi].
42. Robinson TM, Sewell DA, Hultman E, Greenhaff PL. Role of submaximal exercise in promoting creatine and glycogen accumulation in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1999;87(2):598-604. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1999.87.2.598 [doi].
43. Oopik V, Paasuke M, Timpmann S, Medijainen L, Ereline J, Gapejeva J. Effects of creatine supplementation during recovery from rapid body mass reduction on metabolism and muscle performance capacity in well-trained wrestlers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2002;42(3):330-339.
44. Snow WM, Cadonic C, Cortes-Perez C, et al. Chronic dietary creatine enhances hippocampal- dependent spatial memory, bioenergetics, and levels of plasticity-related proteins associated with NF- kappaB. Learn Mem. 2018;25(2):54-66. doi: 10.1101/lm.046284.117 [doi].
45. Gualano B, Artioli GG, Poortmans JR, Lancha Junior AH. Exploring the therapeutic role of creatine supplementation. Amino Acids. 2010;38(1):31-44. doi: 10.1007/s00726-009-0263-6 [doi].
46. Dolan E, Gualano B, Rawson ES. Beyond muscle: The effects of creatine supplementation on brain creatine, cognitive processing, and traumatic brain injury. Eur J Sport Sci. 2019;19(1):1-14. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1500644 [doi].
47. Turner CE, Byblow WD, Gant N. Creatine supplementation enhances corticomotor excitability and cognitive performance during oxygen deprivation. J Neurosci. 2015;35(4):1773-1780. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3113-14.2015 [doi].
48. Hammett ST, Wall MB, Edwards TC, Smith AT. Dietary supplementation of creatine monohydrate reduces the human fMRI BOLD signal. Neurosci Lett. 2010;479(3):201-205. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.05.054 [doi].
49. Benton D, Donohoe R. The influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivores. Br J Nutr. 2011;105(7):1100-1105. doi: 10.1017/S0007114510004733 [doi]. 50. Rae C, Digney AL, McEwan SR, Bates TC. Oral creatine monohydrate supplementation improves brain performance: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial. Proc Biol Sci. 2003;270(1529):2147-2150. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2003.2492 [doi].
51. Ling J, Kritikos M, Tiplady B. Cognitive effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation. Behav Pharmacol. 2009;20(8):673-679. doi: 10.1097/FBP.0b013e3283323c2a [doi].
52. Rawson ES, Lieberman HR, Walsh TM, Zuber SM, Harhart JM, Matthews TC. Creatine supplementation does not improve cognitive function in young adults. Physiol Behav. 2008;95(1-2):130- 134. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.05.009 [doi].
53. Watanabe A, Kato N, Kato T. Effects of creatine on mental fatigue and cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation. Neurosci Res. 2002;42(4):279-285. doi: S016801020200007X [pii].
54. McMorris T, Harris RC, Swain J, et al. Effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2006;185(1):93-103. doi: 10.1007/s00213-005-0269- z [doi].
55. McMorris T, Harris RC, Howard AN, et al. Creatine supplementation, sleep deprivation, cortisol, melatonin and behavior. Physiol Behav. 2007;90(1):21-28. doi: S0031-9384(06)00376-3 [pii].
56. VAN Cutsem J, Roelands B, Pluym B, et al. Can creatine combat the mental fatigue-associated decrease in visuomotor skills? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2020;52(1):120-130. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002122 [doi].
57. Cook CJ, Crewther BT, Kilduff LP, Drawer S, Gaviglio CM. Skill execution and sleep deprivation: Effects of acute caffeine or creatine
supplementation - a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2011;8:2-2. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-8-2 [doi].
58. Cox G, Mujika I, Tumilty D, Burke L. Acute creatine supplementation and performance during a field test simulating match play in elite female soccer players. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2002;12(1):33-46. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.12.1.33 [doi].
59. Hamid M, Rahnanma N, Moghadasi M, Ranjbar K. Effect of creatine supplementation on sprint and skill performance in young soccer players. Middle East Journal of Scientific Research. 2012;12(3):397-401.
60. Alosco ML, Tripodis Y, Rowland B, et al. A magnetic resonance spectroscopy investigation in symptomatic former NFL players. Brain Imaging Behav. 2019. doi: 10.1007/s11682-019-00060-4 [doi].
61. Vagnozzi R, Signoretti S, Floris R, et al. Decrease in N-acetylaspartate following concussion may be coupled to decrease in creatine. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2013;28(4):284-292. doi: 10.1097/HTR.0b013e3182795045 [doi].
62. Sullivan PG, Geiger JD, Mattson MP, Scheff SW. Dietary supplement creatine protects against traumatic brain injury. Ann Neurol. 2000;48(5):723-729.
63. Sakellaris G, Kotsiou M, Tamiolaki M, et al. Prevention of complications related to traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents with creatine administration: An open label randomized pilot study. J Trauma. 2006;61(2):322-329. doi: 10.1097/01.ta.0000230269.46108.d5 [doi].
64. Sakellaris G, Nasis G, Kotsiou M, Tamiolaki M, Charissis G, Evangeliou A. Prevention of traumatic headache, dizziness and fatigue with creatine administration. A pilot study. Acta Paediatr. 2008;97(1):31- 34. doi: APA529 [pii].
65. Jager R, Purpura M, Shao A, Inoue T, Kreider RB. Analysis of the efficacy, safety, and regulatory status of novel forms of creatine. Amino Acids. 2011;40(5):1369-1383. doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-0874-6 [doi].
66. Candow DG, Vogt E, Johannsmeyer S, Forbes SC, Farthing JP. Strategic creatine supplementation and resistance training in healthy older adults. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2015;40(7):689-694. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2014-0498 [doi].
67. Wallimann T, Tokarska-Schlattner M, Schlattner U. The creatine kinase system and pleiotropic effects of creatine. Amino Acids. 2011;40(5):1271-1296. doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-0877-3 [doi].
68. Green AL, Hultman E, Macdonald IA, Sewell DA, Greenhaff PL. Carbohydrate ingestion augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine supplementation in humans. Am J Physiol. 1996;271(5 Pt 1):821. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1996.271.5.E821 [doi].
69. Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE. Creatine and caffeine: Considerations for concurrent supplementation. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2015;25(6):607-623. doi: 2014-0193 [pii].
70. Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE, Roelofs EJ, Hirsch KR, Persky AM, Mock MG. Effects of coffee and caffeine anhydrous intake during creatine loading. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(5):1438-1446. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001223 [doi].
71. Lee CL, Lin JC, Cheng CF. Effect of caffeine ingestion after creatine supplementation on intermittent high-intensity sprint performance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011;111(8):1669-1677. doi: 10.1007/s00421-010- 1792-0 [doi].
72. Chilibeck PD, Candow DG, Landeryou T, Kaviani M, Paus-Jenssen L. Effects of creatine and resistance training on bone health in postmenopausal women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2015;47(8):1587-1595. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000571 [doi].
73. Jagim AR, Stecker RA, Harty PS, Erickson JL, Kerksick CM. Safety of creatine supplementation in active adolescents and youth: A brief review. Front Nutr. 2018;5:115. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2018.00115 [doi]. 74. Persky AM, Rawson ES. Safety of creatine supplementation. Subcell Biochem. 2007;46:275-289. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-6486-9_14 [doi].
2. Buse GJ. No holds barred sport fighting: A 10 year review of mixed martial arts competition. Br J Sports Med. 2006;40(2):169-172. doi: 40/2/169 [pii].
3. del Vecchio FB, Hirata SM, Franchini E. A review of time-motion analysis and combat development in mixed martial arts matches at regional level tournaments. Percept Mot Skills. 2011;112(2):639-648. doi: 10.2466/05.25.PMS.112.2.639-648 [doi].
4. Wilmore J, Costill D. Physiology ofsport and exercise. 3rd ed. Champaing, IL, USA: Human Kinetics; 2004:1. 5. Spanias C, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Anthropometric and physiological profile of mixed martial art athletes: A brief review. Sports (Basel).
2019;7(6):10.3390/sports7060146. doi: E146 [pii].
6. James LP, Robertson S, Haff GG, Beckman EM, Kelly VG. Identifying the performance characteristics of a winning outcome in elite mixed martial arts competition. J Sci Med Sport. 2017;20(3):296-301. doi: S1440-2440(16)30143-8 [pii].
7. Faro HK, de Souza Fortes L, Gomes da Silva Machado, D. Dynamics of cognitive performance at rest and after exhaustive exercise in top-three world-ranked mixed martial arts athletes: A series of case studies. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2019. doi: 10.23736/S0022-4707.19.10207-1 [doi].
8. Thomas DT, Erdman KA, Burke LM. Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics, dietitians of canada, and the american college of sports medicine: Nutrition and athletic performance. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2016;116(3):501-528. doi: S2212-2672(15)01802-X [pii].
9. Reale R, Slater G, Burke LM. Individualised dietary strategies for olympic combat sports: Acute weight loss, recovery and competition nutrition. Eur J Sport Sci. 2017;17(6):727-740. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2017.1297489 [doi].
10. Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. International society of sports nutrition position stand: Safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2017;14:18-z. eCollection 2017. doi: 10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z [doi].
11. Wyss M, Kaddurah-Daouk R. Creatine and creatinine metabolism. Physiol Rev. 2000;80(3):1107-1213. doi: 10.1152/physrev.2000.80.3.1107 [doi].
12. Candow DG, Forbes SC, Chilibeck PD, Cornish SM, Antonio J, Kreider RB. Effectiveness of creatine supplementation on aging muscle and bone: Focus on falls prevention and inflammation. J Clin Med. 2019;8(4):10.3390/jcm8040488. doi: E488 [pii].
13. Candow DG, Forbes SC, Chilibeck PD, Cornish SM, Antonio J, Kreider RB. Variables influencing the effectiveness of creatine supplementation as a therapeutic intervention for sarcopenia. Front Nutr. 2019;6:124. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00124 [doi].
14. Forbes SC, Candow DG. Timing of creatine supplementation and resistance training: A brief review. Journal of Exercise and Nutrition. 2018;1(5):1.
15. Dolan E, Gualano B, Rawson ES. Beyond muscle: The effects of creatine supplementation on brain creatine, cognitive processing, and traumatic brain injury. Eur J Sport Sci. 2018:1-14. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1500644 [doi].
16. Syrotuik DG, Bell GJ. Acute creatine monohydrate supplementation: A descriptive physiological profile of responders vs. nonresponders. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(3):610-617. doi: 10.1519/12392.1 [doi].
17. Safdar A, Yardley NJ, Snow R, Melov S, Tarnopolsky MA. Global and targeted gene expression and protein content in skeletal muscle of young men following short-term creatine monohydrate supplementation. Physiol Genomics. 2008;32(2):219-228. doi: 00157.2007 [pii].
18. Burke DG, Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, et al. Effect of creatine supplementation and resistance- exercise training on muscle insulin-like growth factor in young adults. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2008;18(4):389-398.
19. Candow DG, Forbes SC, Chilibeck PD, Cornish SM, Antonio J, Kreider RB. Effectiveness of creatine supplementation on aging muscle and bone: Focus on falls prevention and inflammation. J Clin Med. 2019;8(4):10.3390/jcm8040488. doi: E488 [pii].
20. Chilibeck PD, Kaviani M, Candow DG, Zello GA. Effect of creatine supplementation during resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscular strength in older adults: A meta-analysis. Open Access J Sports Med. 2017;8:213-226. doi: 10.2147/OAJSM.S123529 [doi].
21. Branch JD. Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: A meta- analysis. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2003;13(2):198-226. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.13.2.198 [doi].
22. Roberts PA, Fox J, Peirce N, Jones SW, Casey A, Greenhaff PL. Creatine ingestion augments dietary carbohydrate mediated muscle glycogen supercompensation during the initial 24 h of recovery following prolonged exhaustive exercise in humans. Amino Acids. 2016;48(8):1831-1842. doi: 10.1007/s00726-016- 2252-x [doi].
23. Graef JL, Smith AE, Kendall KL, et al. The effects of four weeks of creatine supplementation and high-intensity interval training on cardiorespiratory fitness: A randomized controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2009;6:18-18. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-6-18 [doi].
24. Candow DG, Chilibeck PD, Forbes SC. Creatine supplementation and aging musculoskeletal health. Endocrine. 2014;45(3):354-361. doi: 10.1007/s12020-013-0070-4 [doi].
25. Devries MC, Phillips SM. Creatine supplementation during resistance training in older adults-a meta- analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014;46(6):1194-1203. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000220 [doi].
26. Lanhers C, Pereira B, Naughton G, Trousselard M, Lesage FX, Dutheil F. Creatine supplementation and upper limb strength performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2017;47(1):163- 173. doi: 10.1007/s40279-016-0571-4 [doi].
27. Lanhers C, Pereira B, Naughton G, Trousselard M, Lesage FX, Dutheil F. Creatine supplementation and lower limb strength performance: A systematic review and meta-analyses. Sports Med. 2015;45(9):1285-1294. doi: 10.1007/s40279-015-0337-4 [doi].
28. A cross-sectional performance analysis and projection of the UFC athlete. 1st ed. ; 2018:1-45.
29. Manjarrez-Montes de Oca R, Farfan-Gonzalez F, Camarillo-Romero S, et al. Effects of creatine supplementation in taekwondo practitioners. Nutr Hosp. 2013;28(2):391-399. doi: 10.3305/nh.2013.28.2.6314 [doi].
30. Aedma M, Timpmann S, Latt E, Oopik V. Short-term creatine supplementation has no impact on upper-body anaerobic power in trained wrestlers. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2015;12:45-6. eCollection 2015. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0107-6 [doi].
31. Kocak S, Karli U. Effects of high dose oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003;43(4):488-492.
32. Phillips SM. A brief review of critical processes in exercise-induced muscular hypertrophy. Sports Med. 2014;44 Suppl 1:71. doi: 10.1007/s40279-014-0152-3 [doi].
33. Candow DG, Chilibeck PD. Differences in size, strength, and power of upper and lower body muscle groups in young and older men. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2005;60(2):148-156. doi: 60/2/148 [pii].
34. Forbes S, Candow D, Krentz J, Roberts M, Young K. Body fat changes following creatine supplementation and resistance training in adults > 50 years of age: A meta-analysis. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology. 2019;4(3):62. 10.3390/jfmk4030062.
35. Kazak L, Chouchani ET, Jedrychowski MP, et al. A creatine-driven substrate cycle enhances energy expenditure and thermogenesis in beige fat. Cell. 2015;163(3):643-655. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.09.035 [doi].
36. Kazak L, Rahbani JF, Samborska B, et al. Ablation of adipocyte creatine transport impairs thermogenesis and causes diet-induced obesity. Nat Metab. 2019;1(3):360-370. doi: 10.1038/s42255-019- 0035-x [doi].
37. Earnest CP, Almada AL, Mitchell TL. High-performance capillary electrophoresis-pure creatine monohydrate reduces blood lipids in men and women. Clin Sci (Lond). 1996;91(1):113-118.
38. Harris RC, Soderlund K, Hultman E. Elevation of creatine in resting and exercised muscle of normal subjects by creatine supplementation. Clin Sci (Lond). 1992;83(3):367-374.
39. Hultman E, Soderlund K, Timmons JA, Cederblad G, Greenhaff PL. Muscle creatine loading in men. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1996;81(1):232-237. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1996.81.1.232 [doi].
40. Candow DG, Forbes SC, Chilibeck PD, Cornish SM, Antonio J, Kreider RB. Variables influencing the effectiveness of creatine supplementation as a therapeutic intervention for sarcopenia. Front Nutr. 2019;6:124. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2019.00124 [doi].
41. Kim HJ, Kim CK, Carpentier A, Poortmans JR. Studies on the safety of creatine supplementation. Amino Acids. 2011;40(5):1409-1418. doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-0878-2 [doi].
42. Robinson TM, Sewell DA, Hultman E, Greenhaff PL. Role of submaximal exercise in promoting creatine and glycogen accumulation in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1999;87(2):598-604. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1999.87.2.598 [doi].
43. Oopik V, Paasuke M, Timpmann S, Medijainen L, Ereline J, Gapejeva J. Effects of creatine supplementation during recovery from rapid body mass reduction on metabolism and muscle performance capacity in well-trained wrestlers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2002;42(3):330-339.
44. Snow WM, Cadonic C, Cortes-Perez C, et al. Chronic dietary creatine enhances hippocampal- dependent spatial memory, bioenergetics, and levels of plasticity-related proteins associated with NF- kappaB. Learn Mem. 2018;25(2):54-66. doi: 10.1101/lm.046284.117 [doi].
45. Gualano B, Artioli GG, Poortmans JR, Lancha Junior AH. Exploring the therapeutic role of creatine supplementation. Amino Acids. 2010;38(1):31-44. doi: 10.1007/s00726-009-0263-6 [doi].
46. Dolan E, Gualano B, Rawson ES. Beyond muscle: The effects of creatine supplementation on brain creatine, cognitive processing, and traumatic brain injury. Eur J Sport Sci. 2019;19(1):1-14. doi: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1500644 [doi].
47. Turner CE, Byblow WD, Gant N. Creatine supplementation enhances corticomotor excitability and cognitive performance during oxygen deprivation. J Neurosci. 2015;35(4):1773-1780. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3113-14.2015 [doi].
48. Hammett ST, Wall MB, Edwards TC, Smith AT. Dietary supplementation of creatine monohydrate reduces the human fMRI BOLD signal. Neurosci Lett. 2010;479(3):201-205. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.05.054 [doi].
49. Benton D, Donohoe R. The influence of creatine supplementation on the cognitive functioning of vegetarians and omnivores. Br J Nutr. 2011;105(7):1100-1105. doi: 10.1017/S0007114510004733 [doi]. 50. Rae C, Digney AL, McEwan SR, Bates TC. Oral creatine monohydrate supplementation improves brain performance: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial. Proc Biol Sci. 2003;270(1529):2147-2150. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2003.2492 [doi].
51. Ling J, Kritikos M, Tiplady B. Cognitive effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation. Behav Pharmacol. 2009;20(8):673-679. doi: 10.1097/FBP.0b013e3283323c2a [doi].
52. Rawson ES, Lieberman HR, Walsh TM, Zuber SM, Harhart JM, Matthews TC. Creatine supplementation does not improve cognitive function in young adults. Physiol Behav. 2008;95(1-2):130- 134. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.05.009 [doi].
53. Watanabe A, Kato N, Kato T. Effects of creatine on mental fatigue and cerebral hemoglobin oxygenation. Neurosci Res. 2002;42(4):279-285. doi: S016801020200007X [pii].
54. McMorris T, Harris RC, Swain J, et al. Effect of creatine supplementation and sleep deprivation, with mild exercise, on cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood state, and plasma concentrations of catecholamines and cortisol. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2006;185(1):93-103. doi: 10.1007/s00213-005-0269- z [doi].
55. McMorris T, Harris RC, Howard AN, et al. Creatine supplementation, sleep deprivation, cortisol, melatonin and behavior. Physiol Behav. 2007;90(1):21-28. doi: S0031-9384(06)00376-3 [pii].
56. VAN Cutsem J, Roelands B, Pluym B, et al. Can creatine combat the mental fatigue-associated decrease in visuomotor skills? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2020;52(1):120-130. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000002122 [doi].
57. Cook CJ, Crewther BT, Kilduff LP, Drawer S, Gaviglio CM. Skill execution and sleep deprivation: Effects of acute caffeine or creatine
supplementation - a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2011;8:2-2. doi: 10.1186/1550-2783-8-2 [doi].
58. Cox G, Mujika I, Tumilty D, Burke L. Acute creatine supplementation and performance during a field test simulating match play in elite female soccer players. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2002;12(1):33-46. doi: 10.1123/ijsnem.12.1.33 [doi].
59. Hamid M, Rahnanma N, Moghadasi M, Ranjbar K. Effect of creatine supplementation on sprint and skill performance in young soccer players. Middle East Journal of Scientific Research. 2012;12(3):397-401.
60. Alosco ML, Tripodis Y, Rowland B, et al. A magnetic resonance spectroscopy investigation in symptomatic former NFL players. Brain Imaging Behav. 2019. doi: 10.1007/s11682-019-00060-4 [doi].
61. Vagnozzi R, Signoretti S, Floris R, et al. Decrease in N-acetylaspartate following concussion may be coupled to decrease in creatine. J Head Trauma Rehabil. 2013;28(4):284-292. doi: 10.1097/HTR.0b013e3182795045 [doi].
62. Sullivan PG, Geiger JD, Mattson MP, Scheff SW. Dietary supplement creatine protects against traumatic brain injury. Ann Neurol. 2000;48(5):723-729.
63. Sakellaris G, Kotsiou M, Tamiolaki M, et al. Prevention of complications related to traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents with creatine administration: An open label randomized pilot study. J Trauma. 2006;61(2):322-329. doi: 10.1097/01.ta.0000230269.46108.d5 [doi].
64. Sakellaris G, Nasis G, Kotsiou M, Tamiolaki M, Charissis G, Evangeliou A. Prevention of traumatic headache, dizziness and fatigue with creatine administration. A pilot study. Acta Paediatr. 2008;97(1):31- 34. doi: APA529 [pii].
65. Jager R, Purpura M, Shao A, Inoue T, Kreider RB. Analysis of the efficacy, safety, and regulatory status of novel forms of creatine. Amino Acids. 2011;40(5):1369-1383. doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-0874-6 [doi].
66. Candow DG, Vogt E, Johannsmeyer S, Forbes SC, Farthing JP. Strategic creatine supplementation and resistance training in healthy older adults. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2015;40(7):689-694. doi: 10.1139/apnm-2014-0498 [doi].
67. Wallimann T, Tokarska-Schlattner M, Schlattner U. The creatine kinase system and pleiotropic effects of creatine. Amino Acids. 2011;40(5):1271-1296. doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-0877-3 [doi].
68. Green AL, Hultman E, Macdonald IA, Sewell DA, Greenhaff PL. Carbohydrate ingestion augments skeletal muscle creatine accumulation during creatine supplementation in humans. Am J Physiol. 1996;271(5 Pt 1):821. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.1996.271.5.E821 [doi].
69. Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE. Creatine and caffeine: Considerations for concurrent supplementation. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2015;25(6):607-623. doi: 2014-0193 [pii].
70. Trexler ET, Smith-Ryan AE, Roelofs EJ, Hirsch KR, Persky AM, Mock MG. Effects of coffee and caffeine anhydrous intake during creatine loading. J Strength Cond Res. 2016;30(5):1438-1446. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001223 [doi].
71. Lee CL, Lin JC, Cheng CF. Effect of caffeine ingestion after creatine supplementation on intermittent high-intensity sprint performance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2011;111(8):1669-1677. doi: 10.1007/s00421-010- 1792-0 [doi].
72. Chilibeck PD, Candow DG, Landeryou T, Kaviani M, Paus-Jenssen L. Effects of creatine and resistance training on bone health in postmenopausal women. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2015;47(8):1587-1595. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000571 [doi].
73. Jagim AR, Stecker RA, Harty PS, Erickson JL, Kerksick CM. Safety of creatine supplementation in active adolescents and youth: A brief review. Front Nutr. 2018;5:115. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2018.00115 [doi]. 74. Persky AM, Rawson ES. Safety of creatine supplementation. Subcell Biochem. 2007;46:275-289. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-6486-9_14 [doi].
Article Sidebar
Published
Jan 11, 2020
Article Details
How to Cite
Creatine Supplementation: Practical Strategies and Considerations for Mixed Martial Arts. (2020). Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 3(1). https://journalofexerciseandnutrition.com/index.php/JEN/article/view/58
Issue
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright, 2025 by the authors. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
Creatine Supplementation: Practical Strategies and Considerations for Mixed Martial Arts. (2020). Journal of Exercise and Nutrition, 3(1). https://journalofexerciseandnutrition.com/index.php/JEN/article/view/58